Dme 1

MACHINE DESIGN
ASHISH AGARWAL
R.V.C.E, BANGALORE
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept,

RVCE, Bangalore
Engineering Materials
An engineering material is a material in
the solid state whose properties are
technologically useful.
They can be metals or non metals.
Metals: Iron, Steel, Brass, Copper, Lead,
Tin, Aluminum, Titanium, Chromium,
Nickel, etc.
Non Metals:
Plastics, Rubber, Metallic carbides
and oxides, etc.
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Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties to be considered
while selecting a material for a machine
element are;
Strength: Ability to resist failure or
fracture
Stiffness: Ability to resist deformation
Ductility: Ability to undergo considerable
plastic deformation before failure.
Resilience: Energy absorbed in the elastic
range.
Toughness: Energy absorbed in the
plastic range.
Hardness: Resistance to indentation or
abrasion.
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Factors affecting selection of material

The major factors considered are;
(i)Availability: The material should be
readily available in the market, in large
enough quantities to meet the requirement.
(ii)Cost: The cost of material and the cost
of manufacturing will be a limiting factor for
the designer.
(iii) Mechanical Properties: Different
mechanical properties will be important for
different types of loading & service
conditions.
Ex: Connecting rod should have high endurance strength
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Piston rings should have high wear
Factors affecting selection of

material (contd)
(iv) Manufacturing Considerations:
The manufacturing processes such as
Casting, Forging, Extrusion, Welding &
Machining govern the selection of
material.
Ex:
For high strength bolts, axles & shafts, free
cutting steels (with small % of sulphur) are
suitable as they have excellent machinability.
For complex shapes, castability or ability of
Dr P R Venkatesh,
Dept,
the molten metal
to Mechflow
into intricate
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Machine Design
Machine design is defined as the use of
Scientific
principles,
Technical
information and imagination in the
description of a machine or mechanical
system to perform specific functions with
maximum economy & efficiency.
Scientific Principles: Knowledge of physics,
mathematics, statics & dynamics, vibrations &
heat transfer, etc.
Technical information: Information about
fastening devices, chain, belt & gear drives,
Venkatesh, Mech Dept,
Springs, bearings.Dr P R RVCE,
Bangalore
Six phases of machine design

(Shigleys Model)
According to Shigley, the process
of designing
Recognition of need
consists of six phases as follows;
1.Recognition of need
Definition of problem
2.Definition of the problem
Synthesis
3.Synthesis
4.Analysis & Optimization
Analysis & Optimization
5.Evaluation
6. Presentation
Evaluation
Presentation
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(Shigleys Model)
Recognition of need
Synthesis
Evaluation
Presentation
Recognition of need:
It
involves
the
realization
by
someone
that
a
problem exists for
which
some
corrective
action
should be taken.
Definition
of the
problem: It involves
a
thorough
specification of the
item to be designed.

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(Shigleys Model)
Recognition of need
Synthesis It is the
conceptualization
of
the component by the
designer.
Analysis:
iterative
Synthesis
It
is
process
Improvisation
the
of
of
design and redesign

Evaluation
Presentation
till
the
design
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optimized
is
achieved
within the constraints

(Shigleys Model)
Evaluation: It is concerned
with measuring the design
Recognition of need
against the specifications

established at the problem
definition
phase.
This
often requires fabrication
Synthesis
and testing of a prototype

to
Evaluation
Presentation
assess
operating
performance,
quality,
reliability, etc.
Presentation:
documentation

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It
includes
of
the
Types of Design
There may be several types of design such as;
Adaptive design:
This is based on existing design, for example,
standard products or systems adopted for a
new application.
Conveyor belts, control system of machines
and mechanisms or haulage systems are some
of
the
examples
where

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existing
design
systems are adapted for a particular use.
Types of Design
Developmental design:
Here we start with an existing design but finally a
modified design is obtained.
A new model of a car is a typical example of a
developmental design .
New design:
This type of design is an entirely new one and requires
creative thinking to solve a problem.
Examples of this type of design may include designing
a small vehicle for transportation of men and material
on board a ship or in a desert. Some research activity
may be necessary.

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Types of Design based on methods

Rational design:
This is based on determining the stresses and strains of
components using mathematical formulae of principle
of mechanics and thereby deciding their dimensions.
Empirical design:
This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is
based on practice & past experience.
Industrial design:
These are based on industrial considerations and
norms viz. market survey, external look, production
facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.
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Factors to be considered in machine design

There are many factors to be considered while
tackling a design problem.
a)What device or mechanism to be used? This
would decide the relative arrangement of the
constituent elements.
b)Material
c)Forces on the elements
d)Size, shape and space requirements. The final
weight of the product is also a major concern.
e)The method of manufacturing the components
and their assembly.
f)How will it operate?
g)Reliability and safety aspects
h)Inspectability
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Standards and Codes

A standard
is a set of specifications for
parts, materials or processes intended to

achieve uniformity, efficiency and a specified
quality.
One of the important purposes of a standard
is to limit the variety, sizes & shapes.
A code is a set of specifications for analysis,
design,
manufacture
something.
and

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construction
of
Standards and Codes

The organizations listed below have established
standards and design codes;
American
Gear
Manufacturers
Association
(AGMA)
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)
American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)
American Society of Testing & Materials
(ASTM)
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Design against Static Load

A static load is defined as a force that is gradually
applied to a mechanical component and which does not
change in magnitude & direction w.r.t time.
A ductile material will undergo a considerable
amount of plastic deformation before necking.
(cup & cone)
Ex: Steel, Aluminum, Copper, etc.
A brittle material undergoes little amount of
plastic deformation prior to fracture.
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Selection of value for factor of

safety
The common range for factor of safety
is 1.25 to 4 for metals & 5 to 10 for
concrete, wood, etc.
The selection of an appropriate value of
FOS is based primarily on the following
factors;
a)Degree of uncertainty about the
loading.
b)Degree of uncertainty about the
material strength.
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STRESSES IN MACHINE ELEMENTS

Stress in a machine member is defined as
the intensity of internally distributed forces
that resist the external forces acting on that
element.
The unit commonly used is Mega Pascal
(MN/m2) or 106N/m2 which is numerically
equal to N/mm2.
1 Pascal
= 1N/m2
1 Kpa (Kilo Pascal) = 1000 N/m2
1 Bar
= 100 Kpa
=105 N/m2
1MPa (Mega Pascal)
= 106 N/m2=1
N/mm2
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Mechanical properties of metals

CAST IRON: (2 to 4% carbon):
It is classified on the basis of
distribution of carbon content in the
microstructure.
For example, FG 300 indicates it is
cast iron with carbon in the form of Free
Graphite flakes and its ultimate tensile
strength if 300 MPa.
SG 450 (Spheroidal graphite cast
iron) has tensile strength of 450 MPa.
For properties of Cast iron, refer Table
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Mechanical properties of metals

STEELS:
(i)Low Carbon Steels (Or Mild Steel): <
0.3 % carbon
(ii)Medium carbon Steel : 0.3 to 0.5%
carbon
(iii)High carbon Steels: (0.5 to 1%
Carbon)
It is designated by, 100 times the

percentage of carbon, the letter C, followed
by 10 times the percentage of manganese.
For example, 40C8 or C 40 indicates
the average carbon percentage is 0.4%
and average percentage of manganese is
0.8%.
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Rectangular cross section member under axial tension

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Prob 1:
A link shown in fig is required to transmit
a tensile load of 60 KN. Determine the
stresses induces at sections 1-1 & 2-2.
60
30
Section 1-1
mm
Section 2-2

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90 mm
50 mm
60
30
Section 1-1
mm
Section 2-2
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90 mm
50 mm
Prob 2:
A steel rod of circular cross section and
length 200 mm is subjected to a
compressive load of 40 KN. If the safe
stress in rod material is 80 MPa,
determine;
(i)Diameter of the rod
(ii)Contraction of the rod
Take the modulus of elasticity of the
material as 207 GPa.
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(i) Diameter of the rod

F
Compressive stress in the rod L L Eq 1.1 Page 2
A
F
4 F
4 40 103
80
2
2
d
d
d2
4
Diameter of the rod d 25.23 mm
(ii) Contraction in length of the rod
F l
L L Eq 1.3 Page 2
A E
4 F l
4 40 103 200
=
0.0773 mm
2
2
3
d E Dr25.2
3 2Mech
07Dept,
10
P R Venkatesh,
RVCE, Bangalore
Machine Elements subjected to

lateral bending
When a beam is subjected to a load in
the transverse direction, it is subjected
to pure bending moment.
It results in tensile stresses on the
convex side and compressive stresses
on the concave side and zero stress on
M
the neutral
layer. R
M
N
A
c

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M E
The bending equation is

I
c R
where M = Bending moment at the section under consideration
I Moment of inertia about the neutral axis
c Distance of the neutral axis from outer fibers
E Elastic modulus of beam material
R Radius of curvature of the deformed beam
The bending stress may be written as;
Mc M M
I
where Z= is known as section modulus

I
I
Z
c
c
M
A
c

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Prob 1:
A short cantilever beam is of width 20
mm and depth 40 mm supports a
transverse load of 2 KN at a distance of
200 mm from its fixed end. Determine
the maximum bending stress in the
2 KN
beam.
20
A
40
200

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2 KN
20
A
40
200
The maximum bending stress occurs at the fixed point A

M F l 2000 200 4 105 N mm
bh 2 20 402
Section modulus Z
5333.33 mm3
6
6
M
4 105
Maximum bending stress
=
75MPa
Z
5333.33
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Prob 2:
A circular cross section beam of 50 mm
diameter and 1m length is supported
between
bearings.
Determine
the
bending stress induced in the beam
when it is subjected to a 5 KN transverse
load at its center.
5 KN
6 mm
1000 mm

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5 KN
6 mm
1000 mm
The maximum bending stress occurs at the point of

application of the load.
F l 5000 1000
M
1.25 106 N mm
4
4
D 3 503
Section modulus Z
12271.85mm3
32
32
M
1.25 106
=
101.86 MPa
Z
12271.85
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Prob 3:
A steel saw blade 1 mm thick is bent into
an arc of a circle of 500 mm radius.
Determine the flexural stress induced
and the bending moment required to
bend the blade if it is 15 mm wide. Take
E=210 Gpa. R 500
1 mm
x
15
x
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section x-x
R 500
1 mm
x
15
x
section x-x
The bending moment equation is

M E
EI

M
L L L Eqn 1.16 Page 3
I
c R
R
bh3 15 13
Moment of inertia I
1.25 mm 4
12
12
210 103 1.25
Bending moment M
336 N - m m
500
Mc
336 0.5
=
134.4 MPa
I
1.25
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Torsion
When a rod or shaft is subjected to a twisting
moment about its axis, it is subjected to pure
Torsion.
It results in torsional shear stresses which
vary linearly with the radius of the shaft.

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Prob 1:
A circular rod of 50 mm diameter is subjected
to a twisting moment of 1 KN-m. Determine
the shear stress induced in the shaft & the
angular twist per unit length of the shaft. Take
rigidity
modulus
asextreme
84 Gpa.
The shear
stress at the
radii is
D
Tr T 2 16 T 16 (1106 )
2
40.74
4N
/
mm
J
D3
(50)3
D4
32
The angle of twist per meter length
Tl
(1106 ) 1000
0.0194 rad
4
GJ 84 103 50
32

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Machine Elements subjected

transverse shear
When a component is subjected to a force
perpendicular to its axis, so as to shear it at
one or more cross sections, it is said to be
under transverse shear.
The shear stress in case
of single shear is
F
given by
A
F
2A
In case of double shear,

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Prob 1:
A knuckle joint is used to connect shafts of
diameter D to transmit a tensile load of 5 KN.
Determine the diameter of the shaft and the
diameter of the pin required using permissible
tensile stress in the shaft as 60 MPa and the
shear stress in the pin as 40 MPa.
A knuckle joint is a
mechanical joint used to
connect two rods which
are under a tensile load,
when
there
is
a
requirement of small
amount of flexibility, or
angular
moment
is
necessary.
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The tensile stress in the rod is

4 F
4 5000
60
D = 10.3 mm
2
2
D
D
The shear stress in the knuckle pin (double shear)
F
4 5000
40
Dia of pin d 8.92 mm 9 mm.
2
2A
2 d
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Prob 2: Determine the diameter of the rivet

subjected to
(i) Single shear and (ii) Double shear due to a
load of 5 KN. The permissible shear stress in
F
d
F
the
rivet isd 40 MPa.
F
F
F
Single Shear
The shear stress in the rivet (single shear)
Double Shear
F
4 5000
40
Dia of rivet 'd' 12.62 mm 13 mm.
2
A
d
The shear stress in the rivet (double shear)
F
4 5000
40
Dia of rivet 'd' 8.92 mm 9 mm
2 Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech Dept,
2A
2 d
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e
F
F
Fig 1.4, Sl no 5
page 13 DDHB
Mahadevan

eccentric loading
Many structural and machine
members are subjected to loads
that are offset from their centroidal
axes.
Such
members
may
be
considered as elements subjected
to an axial load coupled with a
bending moment.
The stresses may then be added
algebraically to evaluate the total
The total
stresscritical
at the critical
section is
stresses
at the
sections.
F Fe
L L L Eq1.17, Page 3
A Z
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Prob 1:
A steel bracket of rectangular cross section is
loaded as shown in fig. Determine the width b
at section A-A by limiting the tensile stress to
80 N/mm2.
60
5 KN
b
60

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The direct stress at section A - A

60
5 KN
b
60
F 5 103 83.33
d
A 60 b
b
The bending stress at extreme fibers of A - A
F e
bi bo
where Z is the section modulus
Z
For rectangular section,
bh 2
Z=
L Table1.3, Sl no (a), column 5, Page 8
6
5 103 60 500
b
2
b
b 60
6
The max stress at the critical section is
F F e
83.33 500

80
A
Z
b
b
Dr b
P R=Venkatesh,
Dept,
7.354 Mech
8 mm
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Prob 2:
Determine the cross sectional dimensions for
the wall bracket shown in fig if the maximum
stress in the material of the bracket is limited
to 120 MPa. Take the depth of the section
equal to three times its width.
0
30
600 mm
10 KN
h
1200 mm
fig 1 (c)

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600 mm
30
10 KN
h
1200 mm
Horizontal component of force FH F cos 300

FH (10 103 ) cos 300 8660.25 N
Bending moment due to horizontal component
M bH FH e M bH 8660.25 600 5.196 10 6 N - mm
Vertical component of force FV F sin 300
FV (10 103 ) sin 300 5000 N
Bending moment due to vertical component
6
M bV FV l M bVDrP R500
0
1200
610
N - mm
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30
600 mm
10 KN
h
1200 mm
Total bending moment M b = M bH + M bV

(As they are of same sense and tend to stretch
the top fibers & contract the bottom fibers)
M b (5.196+6) 10 6 11.196 10 6 N - mm
bh 2 b(3b ) 2
3
Section modulus Z
1.
5
6
6
M 11.196 106 7.464106

2
Bending stress b
N
/
mm
3
3
Z Dr P R Venkatesh,
1.5 bMech
b
Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
600 mm
30
10 KN
h
1200 mm
FH 8660.25 2886.75
2
Direct Stress due to FH ; d
N
/
mm
bh
3b 2
b2
Maximum stress max = b + d( occurs at top fibres)
7.46410 6 2886.75
120
3
b
b2
120b3 - 2886.75b - 7.46410 6 0
Solving, b = 40 mm, h = 3b = 120 mm
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Prob 3: A C frame is subjected to a

force of 15 KN as shown in fig. It is made
of grey cast iron FG 300 and the factor
of safety is 2.5. Determine the
dimensions of the cross section of the
frame.
5t
t
7.5t

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5t
t
7.5t
Bending moment M = 15 10 3 7.5t

= 112500 N - mm
(It tends to stretch the inner fibers &
contract the outer fibers)
bh 2
Section modulus Z
6
t (5t ) 2
3
Z
4.167
M
112500
Bending stress
Z 4.167 t 3
27000
2

N
/
m
m
3
t Dept,
Dr P R Venkatesh, Mech
RVCE, Bangalore
5t
t
7.5t
F
Direct tensile stress d
A
15000 3000
2

=
N
/
mm
5t 2
t2
Total max stress (occurs at inner fibers)
max b d
ut
300
But max
120 MPa
FOS 2.5
27000 3000
120
+ 2
3
t
t
3
120t 3000t 27000 0
t = 7.434 8 mm
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Determine the normal

stresses at the extreme fibers of the
cross section of a C-clamp loaded as
shown in fig.
Prob
4:
80 KN
150
100
40
100
40
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B=100
80 KN
d=40
150
h=100
100
H=140
40
100
40
c1
c2
b/2 a=40 b/2
Cross section area A = (100 40 +100 40) = 8000 mm 2

Bending moment M = 8010 3 (150 + c1 )
aH 2 bd 2
where c1 =
L Table 1.3, Type d, Page 8
2(aH +bd)
40(1402 ) 60(40) 2
c1
= 55 mm
2 (40 140) (60 40)
c2 (140 55) 85 mm
Hence bending m oment M = 8010 3 (150 + 55)
R Venkatesh, Mech Dept,
M = 16.40 10 5 NDr-Pmm
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B=100
80 KN
d=40
150
100
h=100
H=140
40
100
c1
c2
b/2 a=40 b/2

40
Bc13 bh3 ac23

Moment of inertia I =
L T 1.3, Type d,Page 8
3
where h = (c1 - d)= (55 - 40)= 15 mm

100 553 60 153 40 853
6
4
I
13.667
10
mm
Mc1
Bending stress at inner fiber bi
I
16.40 10 6 55
2
bi
66
N
/
mm
(Tensile)
6
13.667 10
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B=100
80 KN
d=40
150
100
h=100
40
100
H=140
c1
c2
b/2 a=40 b/2
40
Similarly Bending stress at outer fiber bo
Mc2
16.40 10 6 85
2
bo
102
N
/
mm
(
compressive)
6
13.667 10
F 80 103
Direct tensile stress d
10 N / mm 2
A
8000
Total stress at inner fiber i bi d 66 + 10 = 76 N / mm 2
2
Total stress at outer fiberDrP oR Venkatesh,
bo Mech
Dept,
-102
+
10
=
-92
N
/
mm
d
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Prob 5: For the member shown in fig,

determine the maximum load F that
can be applied if the allowable
compressive stress at cross section A-A
is 100 MPa.
A
F
100

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A
F
100
502
Cross section area A =
= 1963.5 mm 2
4
Bending moment M = F (150 +150)= 300 F N - mm
M 32M 32 300 F
2
Bending stress =
0.0245F
N
/
mm
3
3
Z D
50
(It is compressive at inner
fiber
&
tensile
at
outer
fibers)
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A
F
100
F
F
Direct compressive stress =
0.5093 10 -3 F
A 1963.5
Max compressive stress occurs at inner fibers
0.0245 F 0.5093 10-3 F 100
F = 4000N
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Combined Loading
Many structural and machine members
are subjected to loads that are
combinations of axial, bending, &
torsional types.
Such members may be modeled as
elements subjected to uniaxial, biaxial &
triaxial loadings with or without shear
loads.
The
principal
stresses
and
the
maximum shear stress may be found
and these values may be used in the
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Also the expressions for maximum & minimum normal

stresses (Principal stresses) and max shear stress
The maximum & minimum normal stresses (Principal stresses) are
1,2
x y x y
2
xy L L Eq 1.11a Page 2
2
2
x y
x y
2

2
2
The maximum shear stress
xy2 L L Eq 1.11 b Page 2
max
x y
2

xy
2
L L Eq 1.12 Page 2

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Prob 1: A point in a structural member

is subjected to plane stress as shown.
Determine the following;
(i)Principal stresses
(ii)Maximum shear stress
30 MPa
25 MPa
40 MPa
25 MPa
40 MPa
30 MPa

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Major & minor principal stresses

2
x y
x y
2
1,2
xy L L Eq 1.11a & b Page 2

2
2
Hence major principal stress

2
40 30
40 30
2
2
1
25
48.012N
/
m
m
2
2
and minor principal stress

40 30
40 30
2
2
252 38.012N / mm 2
2
The maximum shear stress max

2
max
x y
2

xy
2
40 30
2
2

25
43.012
N
/
mm
2
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Prob 2: A circular rod of diameter 60

mm and length 200 mm is fixed at one
end. The free end is subjected to a
transverse load of 6 KN and a torque of
400 N-m. Determine the stresses at the
critical points.
6 KN
400 N-m
200 mm

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6 KN
400 N-m
200 mm
This is a member subjected to combined bending & Torsion.

Bending moment M = F l = 6000 200 = 1.2 10 6 N mm
M 32 M 32 1.2 10 6
2
Bending stress =
56.59
N
/
mm
Z D3
603
Twisting moment (given) T = 400 N m = 400 10 3 N mm
T
16T 16 400 10 3
2
Shear stress =
9.43
N
/
mm
Z p D3
603
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6 KN
400 N-m
200 mm
Maximum normal stress (or major principal stress) occurs at point A
L L Eq 1.11a & b Page 2

2
2
2
56.59
56.59
2
2
1
9.43 28.295 29.825 58.12N / mm

2
2
Minimum normal stress (or minor principal stress) occurs at point B

56.59
56.59
2
2
9.432 28.295 29.825 -1.53N / mm 2

2

56.59
2
2

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9.432 29.825 N / mm 2
Prob 3: A circular rod of diameter 60

mm and length 200 mm is fixed at one
end. The free end is subjected to an
axial load of 10 KN, a transverse load of
6 KN and a torque of 400 N-m.
Determine the stresses at the critical
points.
6 KN
A
400 N-m
10KN
200 mm

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6 KN
400 N-m
10KN
200 mm
This is a member subjected to combined bending , Torsion & axial load

Bending moment M = F l = 6000 200 = 1.2 10 6 N mm
M 32M 32 1.2 10 6
2
Bending stress b =
56.59
N
/
mm
Z D3
603
(Tensile at top fibers A & compressive at bottom fibres B)
F
4F
4 10 10 3
2
Direct tensile stress d =
3.54
N
/
mm
A D2
602
RVCE, Bangalore
6 KN
400 N-m
10KN
200 mm
Total normal stress at A ,
A = (56.59 3.54) 60.125N / mm 2

& Total normal stress at B,
B = (56.59 3.54) 53.05 N / mm 2
Twisting moment (given) T = 400 N m = 400 10 3 N mm
T
16T 16 400 10 3
2
Shear stress =
9.43 N / mm
3
3
Zp D
60
RVCE, Bangalore
6 KN
400 N-m
10KN
200 mm
Major & minor principal stresses at point A
1,2@ A
1,2@ A
A
A
2
2
2 L L Eq 1.11a & b Page 2
60.125
60.125
2
2
9.432 30.06 31.51
61.57 N / mm 2 & - 1.45 N / mm 2

2
max@ A
60.125
2
2

9.43
31.51
N
/
mm

RVCE, Bangalore
6 KN
10KN
400 N-m
200 mm
Major & minor principal stresses at point B
1,2@ B
1,2@ B
B
B
2
2
53.05
53.05
2
2
9.432 26.525 28.15
-54.67 N / mm 2 & - 1.625 N / mm 2

2
max@ B
53.05
2
2

9.43
28.15
N
/
mm

RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 3: Determine the maximum normal stress

and the maximum shear stress at section A-A for
the overhung crank shown in fig. when a load of
12 KN is assumed to be concentrated at the
center of the crank
pin.
25 25
50
100
O 50
Web
150
Pin
O 80
A
Dr P RShaft
Crank
RVCE, Bangalore
12 KN
50
25
25
100
O 50
Web
12 KN
Pin
150
O 80
A
Crank Shaft

Bending moment M = F l = 12 103 (50 25 25) = 12 10 5 N mm
M 32M 32 12 10 5
2
Bending stress =
23.87
N
/
mm
Z D3
803
Twisting moment T = 12 103 150 = 18 10 5 N mm
T
16T 16 18 10 5
2
Shear stress =
17.9
N
/
mm
Z p DrDP3R Venkatesh,
Mech
803Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
Maximum normal stress (or major principal stress)
max
max

2
2
23.873
23.873
2
2
17.92
max 11.94 21.52 33.46 N / m m 2

2

2
max

2
2
23.873
2
2

17.9 21.52 N / mm
2 Dr P R RVCE,
Bangalore
Prob 4: Determine the maximum normal

stress and the maximum shear stress at
section A-A for the overhung crank shown in
fig. Neglect the effect of transverse shear.
50
25
25
100
O 50
10 KN
150
O 80

RVCE, Bangalore
50
25
25
100
10 KN
F
O 50
150
ycos
O 80
Here, the bending moment

arm remains the same
while the torque arm
becomes cos component
of the crank radius as the
line of action of force is
inclined to the horizontal.
T=F x ycos

Bending moment M = F l = 12 103 (50 25 25) = 12 10 5 N mm
M 32M 32 12 10 5
2
Bending stress =
23.87
N
/
mm
Z D3
803
Twisting moment T = 12 103 150 cos 300 = 15.59 10 5 N mm
T
16T 16 15.59 10 5
2
Shear stress =
15.51
N
/
mm
3
Z p DrDP3R Venkatesh,Mech
80Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
Maximum normal stress (or major principal stress)
max
max

2
2
23.873
23.873
2
2
15.512
max 11.94 19.57 31.51 N / mm 2

2

2
max

2
2
23.873
2
2

15.51 19.57 N / mm
2 Dr P R RVCE,
Bangalore
Prob 5: A 50 mm diameter steel rod

supports 9 KN load in addition to a
torsional moment of 100 Nm as shown in
fig. Determine the maximum tensile and
maximum shear stress.
9 KN
100 N-m

RVCE, Bangalore
9 KN
A
100 N-m
This is a member subjected to eccentric & Torsion.

Bending moment M = F l = 9 103 28 = 252 10 3 N mm
M 32 M 32 252 10 3
2
Bending stress b =
20.535
N
/
mm
Z D3
503
F
4F
4 9 10 3
2
Direct tensile stress d =
4.
5
84
N
/
mm
A D2
502
Total maximum normal stress =b +d
= 20.535 +4.584 = 25.12 MPa
RVCE, Bangalore
Twisting moment T (given ) = 100 Nm = 100 103 = 10 5 N mm

T
16T 16 10 5
2
Shear stress =
4.074
N
/
mm
Z p D 3 503
Maximum principal stress
max

2
2

2
max
25.12
25.12
2
2
4.074
25.764
N
/
mm
2
2

2
max

2
2
25.12
2
2

4.074
=
13.2
N
/
mm
2
RVCE, Bangalore
Theories of failure
The design of machine parts subjected
to combined loads should be related to
experimentally determined properties of
material under similar conditions.
However, it is not possible to conduct
such tests for different combination of
loads and obtain mechanical properties.
In practice, the mechanical properties
such as yield strength, ultimate strength
and percentage elongation are obtained
from a simple tension test.
RVCE, Bangalore
Theories of failure
Theories
of
failure
provide
a
relationship between the strength of the
machine
component
subjected
to
complex state of stress with the
mechanical properties obtained from
tension test.
With the help of these theories, the data
obtained in tension test can be used to
determine the dimensions of the
component, irrespective of the nature of
stresses induced in the component due
to complex loads.
RVCE, Bangalore
Theories of failure
Several theories of failure have been
proposed, each assuming a different
hypothesis of failure.
The important theories are;
1.Maximum Principal Stress theory
(Rankines theory)
2.Maximum strain theory (St. Venant's
theory)
3.Maximum
shear
Stress
theory
(Coulomb, Tresca & Guests theory)
4.Distortion energy theory (or) Shear
energy theory (Hencky
Von Mises theory)
RVCE, Bangalore
1. Maximum Principal stress theory or Rankine's Theory

It states that " the failure of a specimen subjected to combined
loading occurs when the maximum principal stress at any point
in the specimen reaches the yield or ultimate strength as
detemined from a simple tension test".
i.e. Failure occurs when e = 1
2
1
1
2
e x y
L Eqn 2.8, Page16
x
y
2
2
yt
For safe design, e =
for ductile materials &
n
ut
e
for brittle materials where n = factor of safety
n
* Experimental investigations suggest that Rankine's theory gives good predictions
for brittle materials and not recommended for ductile materials.

RVCE, Bangalore
2. Maximum principal strain theory or St.Venant's theory

loading occurs when the maximum normal strain at any point in the
specimen reaches the principal strain as detemined from a
simple tension test".
e ( 1 2 )
Failure occurs when
e ( 1 2 )
E
E
2
1
e (1 )( x y ) (1 ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.9, Page16

2
yt
n
ut
e
n
* St.Venant's theory predicts smaller value of stress than maximum
P Rwidely
Venkatesh,
Mech Dept,
principal stress theory & henceDrnot
used.
RVCE, Bangalore
3. Maximum Shear stress theory or Tresca's theory or Guest's theory

or Coulomb's theory
loading occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the
specimen reaches the shear yield stress as detemined from a
simple tension test".
e
We know that shear stress at yield, e =
2
( 2 )
Failure occurs when e max 1
e ( 1 2 )
2
2
e
L L Eqn 2.10, Page16
x
y
2
yt
n
where n = factor of safety
for ductile materials
* Max shear stress theory is widely used for predicting the failure of
Dr P R Venkatesh,
ductile materials such as transmission
shafts.Mech Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
4. Shear energy theory or Hencky -Von Mises's theory

loading occurs when the shear energy of distortion per unit volume
at any point in the specimen reaches the shear energy of distortion
at yield point as detemined from a simple tension test".
1
2
As shear energy at yielding in tension is U
e & that under

3E
1
2
2
2 1 2 , failure occurs when;

1
3E
combined loading is
e2 12 22 1 2 OR e 12 22 1 2
e x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16

yt
for ductile materials
n
where n = factor of safety
* Experiments have shown that distortion energy theory is in better agreement for
predicting failure of ductile component

any other theory of failure.
RVCE, than
Bangalore
5. Maximum Total strain energy theory or Haigh's theory

loading occurs when the total strain energy per unit volume at any
point in the specimen reaches the total strain energy at yield point
as detemined from a simple tension test".
Failure occurs when;
e 12 22 2 1 2 L Eqn 2.11b, Page16

yt
n
ut
e
n
* As the experimental investigations do not support predictions
as per this theory, is not used widely as other theories.
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 1
A machine member C 40 steel is loaded
in the following ways;
(a) x = 40 MPa and y = 20 MPa
(b) x = 60 MPa and xy = 40 MPa
(c) x = 60 MPa , y = -20 MPa and xy = 30
MPa
Determine the factor of safety in each
type of loading by using;
Maximum Principal Stress theory
(Rankines theory)
Maximum shear Stress theory (Coulomb,
Tresca & Guests
theory)
RVCE, Bangalore
From Table 1.8, Page 419, for C 40 steel, yt

=324
Consider a x = 40 MPa
and MPa
y = 20MPa
1. Maximum principal stress theory or Rankine's theory
yt 1
2
For safe design,

( x y ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.8, Page16
n
2
324 1
2
(40 20) 40 20 0 factor of safety n = 8.1
n
2
2. Maximum shear stress theory Tresca's theory
yt
2
For safe design,
x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.10, Page16
n
324
2
40 20 0 factor of safety n = 16.2

n
3. Shear energy of distortion theory or Hencky's theory
yt
For safe design,
x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16
n
324
2
402 (40 20) Dr20

0 factor
of safety n = 9.35
P R Venkatesh,
Mech Dept,
n
RVCE, Bangalore
Consider b x = 60 MPa and xy =40MPa

yt 1
2
For safe design,

( x y ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.8, Page16
n
2
324 1
2
(60 0) 60 0 4 40 2 factor of safety n = 4.05
n
2
yt
2
For safe design,
x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.10, Page16
n
324
2
60 0 4 402 factor of safety n = 3.24

n
yt
For safe design,
x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16
n
324
602 0 02 3 402 factor of safety n = 3.535

n
RVCE, Bangalore
Consider c x = 60 MPa, y = - 20 MPaand xy =30MPa

yt 1
2
For safe design,

( x y ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.8, Page16
n
2
324 1
2
(60 20) 60 20 4 30 2 factor of safety n = 4.63
n
2
yt
2
For safe design,
x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.10, Page16
n
324
2
60 20 4 302 factor of safety n = 3.24

n
yt
For safe design,
x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16
n
324
602 (60 20) 202 3 302 factor of safety n = 3.645

n
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 2
A steel shaft is subjected to a bending
moment of 9 KNm & a twisting moment
of 12 KNm. The yield strength of steel is
360 MPa & factor of safety is 2.
Determine the permissible diameter of
the shaft by using;
(Rankines theory)
2.Maximum
shear
Stress
theory
(Coulomb, Tresca & Guests theory)
3.Distortion energy theory (or) Shear
energy theory (Hencky Von Mises theory)
RVCE, Bangalore
Data : M = 9 KNm, T = 12 KNm, yt = 360MPa,n = 2

This is a shaft subjected to combined bending & Torsion.
Bending moment M = 9 KNm = 9 10 6 N mm
32 M 32 9 10
Bending stress =
3
D
D3
91.673106
2

N
/
mm
3
D
Twisting moment T = 12 KNm = 12 10 6 N mm
6
T
16T 16 12 10 6
Shear stress =
3
Zp D
D3
61.11106
2

N
/
mm
D3
RVCE, Bangalore
yt 1
2
For safe design,

( x y ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.8, Page16
n
2
360 1 106
2
3 (91.673 0) 91.673 0 4 61.112
2
2 D
Diameter of shaft D = 87.89 90 m m
yt
2
For safe design,
x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.10, Page16
n
360 106
2
3 91.673 0 4 61.112
2
D
Diameter of shaft D = 94.68 95 mm
yt
For safe design,
x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16
n
360 106
3 91.6732 0 02 3 61.112
2
D
P R Venkatesh,
Mech Dept,
Diameter of shaft D = Dr
91.97
95 mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 3
A mild steel shaft of 60 mm diameter is
subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 KNm & a
twisting moment T. If The yield strength of
shaft material in tension is 200 MPa, find the
maximum value of torque at which the shaft
just begins to yield, according to;
2.Maximum shear Stress theory
RVCE, Bangalore
3.Distortion energy theory
Data : M = 2.5KNm= 2.5 10 6 N mm, D = 60 mm,

T (at yileding) = ? ( factor of safety need not be taken)
32 M 32 2.5 106
2
Bending stress
117.89
N
/
mm
D3
603
Let the shear stress induced be equal to ' '
2
1
For yielding, yt ( x y ) x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.8, Page16

2
1
2
i.e. 200 (117.89 0) 117.89 0 4 2
282.11 13898 4 2 Squaring both sides,

79586 13898 4 2 =128.15N / mm2
16T
16T
But shear stress
128.15
3
D
603
Max torque to cause yielding of shaft T 5.435 10 6 N - mm
RVCE, Bangalore

For yielding, yt
200
L Eqn 2.10, Page16
x
y
2
2
117.89
200 13898 4 2 Squaring both sides,

40000 13898 4 2 =80.78 N / mm2
16T
16T
But shear stress
80.78
3
D
603

RVCE, Bangalore

For yielding, yt x2 x y y2 3 2 L Eqn 2.11a, Page16
200
117.89 0 0 3 2
2
200 13898 3 2 Squaring both sides,

40000 13898 3 2 =80.78 N / mm2
16T
16T
But shear stress
93.28
3
D
603

RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 4
Determine the diameter of the shaft loaded as
shown in fig based on maximum shear stress
theory. Take yield point as 380 MPa and factor
of safety as 2.

RVCE, Bangalore
Data : This is a shaft subjected to combined bending & Torsion.

From the fig, M = 1000 250 = 2.5 10 5 N - mm &
T = 1000 500 = 5 10 5 N - mm,
yt = 380MPa,n = 2
32 M 32 2.5 10 5 2.5465 106
2
Bending stress =
N
/
mm
D3
D3
D3
16T 16 5 10 5 2.5465 106
2
Shear stress
N
/
mm
D3
D3
D3
Maximum shear stress theory Tresca's theory
yt
2
For safe design,
x y 4 2 L Eqn 2.10, Page16
n
380 106
2
3 2.5465 0 4 (2.5465) 2
2
D
Diameter of shaft D = 31.06 35 mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Stress Concentration
In the basic stress equations for
tension, compression, bending &
torsion, it is assumed that there are
no discontinuities in the cross section
of the machine component.
But while designing a machine
component it is necessary to have
changes in cross sections such as
hole, notch, keyway, etc.
Such discontinuities will alter the
RVCE, Bangalore
Stress Concentration
In the basic stress equations for
tension, compression, bending &
torsion, it is assumed that there are
no discontinuities in the cross section
of the machine component.
But while designing a machine
component it is necessary to have
changes in cross sections such as
hole, notch, keyway, etc.
Such discontinuities will alter the
RVCE, Bangalore
Internal force lines are

denser near the hole

RVCE, Bangalore
Methods of reducing stress

Concentration
It is rather impossible to avoid stress
concentration, but care can be taken
to reduce it.
In a machine element, the force flow
lines must be uniformly spaced and
the number of flow lines at any cross
section must be same.
The same may be achieved by using
fillets at steps, by drilling additional
holes or making additional notches,
by using symmetrical shapes, etc.
RVCE, Bangalore

RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 1
A steel plate of width 50 mm, thickness
10 mm, with a hole of diameter 10 mm
drilled at its center is subjected to a
tensile load F. Determine the load F
the material can withstand by taking the
stress concentration into account. The
maximum stress in the member is 60
RVCE, Bangalore
Data: Width of plate w = 50 mm, hole dia a

or d =10 mm, Thickness of plate t=10 mm,
max= 60 MPa
t
F
F
w
From fig 2.8, page 33, for
a 10
0.2, stress concentration factor kt = 2.5

w 50
max
60
2.5
, nom = 24MPa
nom
nom
F
F
Also, nom
24
F =9600 N
( w a )t
(50 10) 10
But kt

RVCE, Bangalore
Bar in tension or compression with a transverse

hole. A=(w-d)t where t= thickness of plate
Fig 2.8, Page 33, Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 2
Determine
the
maximum
stress
induced in the notched plate as

shown in fig.
9 KN
D=80
9 KN
d
R 10
10

RVCE, Bangalore
Notched bar in tension or compression with a

transverse hole. A=td where t= thickness of plate
Fig 2.4, Page 31, Mahadevan DDHB
9 KN
D=80
9 KN
d
R 10
From the fig,
10
D = 80 mm, r = 10 mm , d = (D - 2r) = 80 - (2 10) = 60mm ,

F = 9000 N, t = 10 mm.
From the fig 2.4, Page 31,
r 10
D 80
for
0.167, and
1.333, kt = 2.12
d 60
d 60
F
9000
nom
15 MPa
t d 10 60
max
max
But kt
2.12
nom =31.8 MPa
nom
15 Mech Dept,
Dr P R Venkatesh,
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 3
A rectangular plate as shown in fig is subjected
to an axial pull of 200 KN. Determine the
thickness of the plate if the plate material is
made of C 60 steel and the factor of safety
desired is 2.
200 KN
200
200 KN
50
50
R 10

RVCE, Bangalore
200 KN
200
200 KN
50
50
R 10
For C 60 steel, from table 1.8, Page 418,

yt 412
yt = 412MPa max
206MPa
n
2
a 50
Considering the hole section (A - A), for
0.25, kt = 2.45
w 200
(fig 2.8, page 33)
max
206
But kt
2.45
nom =84.1 MPa
nom
nom
nom
F
200 103
84.1
t =15.85 16 mm
Dr (200
P R Venkatesh,
(w a) t
50)Mech
t Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
200 KN
200
200 KN
50
50
R 10
Considering the fillet section (B - B),

D 200
r
10
for
1.11 & =
=0.055, kt = 2.5. (fig 2.4, page 31)
d 180
d 180
max
206
But kt
2.5
nom =82.4 MPa
nom
nom
F
200 103
nom
82.4
t =13.48 14 mm
d t
180 t
Select higher value for safe design, i.e. t =16 mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 4
Determine the diameter of the hole

shown in fig, if the stress
concentration factor at the hole is
to be same as that at the fillet.
50
r5
85

RVCE, Bangalore
50
r5
85
Fig 2.8, Page 33,
Mahadevan DDHB
Fig 2.6, Page 32,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
50
r5
85
At the fillet section, (fig 2.6, Page 32, for stepped bar in tension)
D 85
r
5
1.7,
0.1, kt = 2.18
d 50
d 50
At the hole section, (fig 2.8, Page 33, for plate with a hole)
a
Corresponding to kt 2.18,
=0.5
w
a
0.5 Diameter of the hole =42.5 mm

85
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 5
A shaft is stepped down from 80 mm
diameter with a fillet radius of 6 mm.
Determine the maximum stress induced
in the shaft when subjected to;
(i)Bending moment of 200 Nm.
(ii)Twisting moment of 400 Nm.
r6

RVCE, Bangalore
r6
Fig 2.16, Page 37,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
r6
(a) When subjected to bending moment of 200 Nm :

(fig 2.16, Page 37, for stepped bar in bending)
D 80
r
6
2,
0.15, kt =1.55
d 40
d 40
32 M 32 200 103
2
nom
31.83
N
/
mm
d3
403
max
But kt
max kt nom 1.55 31.83 49.34
nom
2
Max stress induced
in
the
shaft
=49.3
4
N
/
mm
RVCE, Bangalore
r6
Fig 2.18, Page 38,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
r6
(b) When subjected to bending mom ent of 400 Nm :

(fig 2.18, Page 38, for stepped bar in bending)
D 80
r
6
2,
0.15, kts =1.34

d 40
d 40
16T 16 400 103
2
nom 3
31.83
N
/
mm
d
403
max
But kts
max kts nom 1.34 31.83 42.65
nom
2
Max shear stress induced
in
the
shaft
=
42
.65
N
/
mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 6
A grooved shaft of larger diameter 60 mm has
a semicircular groove of radius 5 mm.
Determine the maximum stress induced in the
shaft taking stress concentration into account
when subjected to;
(i)An axial load of 40 KN.
(ii)A bending moment of 400 Nm.
(iii)A twisting moment of 500 Nm.
r5

RVCE, Bangalore
r5
Fig 2.9, Page 33,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
r5
(a) When subjected to an axial load of 40KN :

(fig 2.9, Page 33, for grooved shaft in tension)
D 60
r
5
1.2,
0.1, kt = 2.17
d 50
d 50
4 F 4 40 103
2
nom
20.372
N
/
mm
d2
502
max
But kt
max kt nom 2.17 20.372 44.2
nom
2
Max stress induced
in
the
shaft
=44.2
N
/
mm
RVCE, Bangalore
r5
Fig 2.11, Page 34,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
r5
(a) When subjected to bending moment of 400 Nm :

(fig 2.11, Page 34, for grooved shaft in bending)
D 60
r
5
1.2,
0.1, kt =1.89
d 50
d 50
32 M 32 400 103
2
nom
32.595
N
/
mm
d3
503
max
But kt
max kt nom 1.89 32.595 61.6
nom
2
Max stress induced
in
the
shaft
=
61.6
N
/
mm
RVCE, Bangalore
r5
Fig 2.13, Page 35,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
r5
(a) When subjected to twisting moment of 500 Nm :

(fig 2.13, Page 35, for grooved shaft in torsion)
D 60
r
5
1.2,
0.1, kts =1.46

d 50
d 50
16T 16 500 103
2
nom 3
20.372
N
/
mm
d
503
max
But kts
max kts nom 1.46 20.372 29.74
nom
2
Max stress induced
in
the
shaft
=
29.74
N
/
mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 7
A shaft of diameter 1.5d is stepped down
to diameter d with a fillet radius of d/8. It
carries a transverse load of 60 KN as shown
in fig. Find suitable diameter d if the shaft
is made of SAE 1045 annealed steel.
Assume factor of safety 2.5.
r=d/8
D=1.5 d
d
200
300
RVCE, Bangalore
60 KN
r=d/8
D=1.5 d
60 KN
d
200
300
Fig 2.16, Page 37,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
This component is subjected to bending moment :

For SAE 1045 steel, yt = 310 MPa (T 1.18, page 428)
yt 310
max
124MPa
n
2.5
M (at critical section) = 60 10 3 200 = 12 10 6 N - mm
d
D 1.5d
r
For
1.5,
8 0.125, kt =1.58
d
d
d
d
(fig 2.16, Page 37, for stepped shaft in bending)
max
max 124
But kt
nom
78.48 N / mm2
nom
kt
1.58
32 M
32 12 106
But nom
78.48
3
d
d3
d =116 mm, D =1.5d
mm
& r =0.125d =14.5 mm
Dr P =174
R Venkatesh,
Mech Dept,
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 8
A shaft of diameter 60 mm has a
semicircular groove of radius 5 mm & is
made of steel having allowable shear stress
of 60 MPa. Determine the safe power that
5
can be transmitted at r900
rpm.
D

RVCE, Bangalore
r5
Fig 2.13, Page 35,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
Grooved shaft subjected to twisting moment 'T' :

(fig 2.13, Page 35, for grooved shaft in torsion)
D 60
r
5
1.2,
0.1, kts =1.46

d 50
d 50
max
max
60
But kts
nom
=41.1 MPa
nom
kts 1.46
16T
16 T
Also nom
41.1
3
d
503
T 1008.64 10 3 N - mm=1008.64 Nm
2 NT
2 900 1008.64
P
=
95.1 KW
60000
60000
Power that can be transmitted by the shaft =95.1 KW
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 9
A stepped shaft shown in fig is subjected
to a transverse load. The shaft is made of
steel with an ultimate strength of 400 MPa.
Determine the diameter d based on a
factor of safety of 2.
8 KN
A
d/5
d/10
d
250
2d
100
d
125

RVCE, Bangalore
25
8 KN
A
d/5
d/10
d
250
2d
100
d
125
25
This is a simply supported beam subjected to bending moment :

(Refer Table 1.4, Sl No 5, page 11, Mahadevan DDHB)
F b 8000 150
Support reaction at A , RA
= 2400 N
l
600
F a 8000 350
Support reaction at B , RB
=5600 N
l
600
RVCE, Bangalore
8 KN
A
d/5
d/10
d
250
2d
100
d
125
25
Fig 2.16, Page 37,

Mahadevan DDHB
RVCE, Bangalore
There are two critical sections at left fillet & right fillet.
(i) Considering left fillet :
Bending moment M RA 250 2400 250 6 105 N - mm
d
D 2d
r
For
2,
10 0.1, kt =1.74
d
d
d
d
max
ut 400
But kt
, Here, max
200 MPa
nom
n
2
nom
max 200
114.94 N / mm2
kt
1.74
But nom
32 M
32 6 105
114.94
d 37.6 40mm
3
3
d
dDept,
Dr P R Venkatesh,
Mech
RVCE, Bangalore
(i) Considering right fillet :

Bending moment M RB 25 5600 25 1.4 105 N - mm
d
D 2d
r
For
2,
5 0.2, kt =1.44
d
d
d
d
max
max 200
But kt
, nom
138.9 N / mm2
nom
kt
1.44
32 M
32 1.4 105
But nom
138.9
d 21.73 25 mm
3
3
d
d
Selecting the higher of the two values for safe design,
d =40 mm, D = 2d =80 mm ,
r( left fillet)= 4 mm, r( right fillet) = 8 mm
RVCE, Bangalore
Prob 10
An infinite plate with an elliptical cut out
having major diameter 60 mm and minor
diameter 30 mm is subjected to uniaxial
tension. Determine the stress concentration
factor when;
(i)Load is at right angles to the major axis
(ii) Load is parallel to the major axis
RVCE, Bangalore
Note: From Table 2.1, Page 23, Sl No 4 & 5,

60
30
60
F
30
F
Kt = 1+2b/c when load is perpendicular to major axis

Kt = 1+2c/b when load is perpendicular to minor axis
where b= semi major axis & c=semi minor axis.
Here, major axis 2b = 60 mm b = 30 mm &

minor axis 2c = 30 mm c = 15 mm
(i) When load is perpendicular to major axis :
2b
60
kt 1 1 5
c
15
(ii) When load is parallel to major axis :
2c
kt 1
b
30
1 2
30

RVCE, Bangalore

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