Topic 9: Solar Energy

Solar energy is one proven source that can eventually meet the worlds
energy needs for the long term.
The amount of solar power reaching the Earth is about 170,000 TW.
Approximately how many times greater is this power than the worlds
energy consumption rate?
(a) 100

(b) 1,000

(c) 10,000

Page 1

Contribution of Solar Energy

What percentage of total world energy consumption (2008) was supplied
by electrical power generation via wind-solar-biomass-geothermal?
(a)
<1%
(b) 3 %
(c) 13 %
WindSolarBiomassGeothermal
Electrical Power generation 0.7%

Nuclear ~3%

Biofuels 0.6%
Water Heating 1.4%

Hydro 3.2%

Fossil Fuels
78%

Renewables
19%

Traditional
Biomass
13%

Page 2

Suns Intensity at Earth

Intensity Sun-at-Earth

Sun's Power
Surface Area of Sphere

P
4 r

2
Sun Earth

3.84 1026 W
4 149, 600, 000 km

Intensity Sun-at-Earth 1370 W/m 2

Mars

How does the sun's intensity at Mars

compare to its intensity at Earth?
(a) higher (b) same
(c) lower

Earth
Sun

Page 3

Suns Intensity: Inner & Outer Planets

In a solar system far, far away the sun's intensity is 200 W/m2 for a planet located a distance R
away. What is the sun's intensity for a planet located at a distance 5 R from the Sun? (Format = X)

5R
R
Sun

outer
sphere

2
IOuter
rInner
2
I Inner
rOuter

inner
sphere

Page 4

Suns Actual Intensity

IEarth = 1370 W/m2
IAverage = 235 W/m2
Factor of 2 decrease because of Earths curved surface.
Factor of 2 decrease because 50% darkness.
Decreases due to clouds, etc.

IMid-day ~ 1000 W/m2

Page 5

Light Bulb's Intensity

What is the intensity (W/m2) of a 100 W light bulb at a
distance 5 cm from the bulbs center? (Format = XXXX)

The intensity of this 100 W light bulb at a distance 5 cm from the

center is _________ than the sun's intensity at mid-day.
(a) higher

(b) lower

Page 6

Suns Intensity: Annual Average in U.S.

Rank the cities from highest to lowest annual average solar intensity.
(a) Denver (b) Detroit (c) Phoenix (d) Richmond
Is the annual average solar intensity of a city only determined by its
latitude? (a) yes (b) no

150 W/m2

45
40
Richmond
37.5

35

>500 W/m2

30

Latitude
Page 7

Seasons
Why do we have seasons?
(a) Changing distance between
the Earth and sun during year.
(b) Constant tilt angle of the Earth
as it revolves around the sun.
(c) Periodic variations in the suns
solar output during the year.

Page 8

Seasons: Tilt of Earth

What is the tilt of the Earth away from the vertical?
(a) 10.5

(b) 23.5

Winter Solstice
North pole tilted
away from Sun

(c) 45.5

Fall Equinox
North pole not tilted
with respect to Sun

N
Earth

Sun
S

Summer Solstice
Spring Equinox
North pole not tilted
with respect to Sun

North pole tilted

toward Sun
Page 9

Seasons: Earth's Tilt and Sun's Location

In the Northern hemisphere, what is the Earth's orientation during the winter
solstice, spring or fall equinox, and summer solstice?
(3-digit answer)
(1) North pole is tilted toward the Sun, making the sun appear higher in the sky.
(2) North pole is tilted away from the Sun, making the sun appear lower in the
sky.
(3) North pole is not tilted either toward or away from the Sun.

Page 10

Winter Solstice (Northern Hemisphere)

During the winter solstice in Richmond (latitude = 37.5), what is the
angle (yellow angle in picture) of the sun at noon from the "vertical"?
(a) 14 (37.523.5)

(b) 23.5

(c) 37.5

(d) 61 (23.5+37.5)

Richmond

North
Pole

37.5

Winter Solstice
shortest day of year

Sun

23.5

Equator
23.5

Page 11

Spring or Fall Equinox

During the equinox in Richmond, what is the angle of the sun at noon
from the "vertical"?
(a) 14 (37.523.5)

(b) 23.5

(c) 37.5

(d) 61 (23.5+37.5)
North
Pole

Equinox
equal day and night

Sun

Richmond
37.5

Equator

Page 12

Summer Solstice (Northern Hemisphere)

North Pole is tilted 23.5 toward from Sun and Sun is "high" in sky.
In Richmond, what is the angle of the sun at noon from the "vertical"?
(a) 14 (37.523.5)

(b) 23.5

(c) 37.5

(d) 61 (23.5+37.5)
North
Pole

Summer Solstice
longest day of year

Sun

23.5

Richmond
37.5

23.5

Equator

Page 13

Passive Solar Home (Northern Hemisphere)

Passive solar homes have south-facing windows with overhang, good
insulation, and a high thermal mass for heat storage.
During which seasons is the sun highest and lowest in the sky?
(1) summer solstice
(2) equinox
(3) winter solstice

Summer
Sunlight

overhang

North

Winter
Sunlight
South

Page 14

Solar THERMAL: Actual Passive Solar Home

Which direction is south in this picture (taken at noon)?
(a) Left
(b) Front
(c) Right
LEFT

RIGHT

Roof
Overhang

Roof
Windows

FRONT
Page 15

Solar THERMAL Power: Water Heaters

Hot-water heating is what percent of energy use in a typical U.S.
home? (a) 1% (b) 20% (c) 50%
What country requires that solar water heaters be installed for all new
homes and has the highest solar energy use per capita?
(a) U.S.
(b) China (c) Israel

Rooftop hot-water heater.

Page 16

Solar THERMAL: Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

Emerged as a significant new power source during 2006 2010.
In early 2010, 0.7 GW of CSP in U.S. and Spain.
Main types: Dish, Power Tower, Linear Concentrator

(a) Mirrors spread sunlight over a larger region.

(b) Mirrors focus sunlight to a small region.

Focus

sunlight

Why are parabolic mirrors used in CSP systems?

VIDEO

Page 17

http://www.solarpaces.org/News/Projects/projects.htm

2,750 GW

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) and

World Electricity Capacity (2006)
What was the world's 2006 total electricity capacity?
(a) 2 TW (b) 4 TW (c) 10 TW
What percentage of this total capacity was from solar PV?
(a) < 1 % (b) 5 % (c) 10 %
Solar PV ~ 8 GW in 2006
Solar PV ~24 GW in 2009

780 GW
380 GW

110 GW
Data Source: IEA

Thermal Hydroelectric
(coal, gas)

Nuclear

Renewables
(wood, biofuels, wind, solar)
Page 18

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cells

Photovoltaic cells use special materials called semiconductors to directly
convert light energy into electrical energy. (NO thermal process!)
What is the most common semiconductor material used today for
solar PV cells? (a) carbon
(b) zinc oxide
(c) silicon

Page 19

Silicon Solar Panels

If your house required an average 3 kW electrical power during the
day, then how many thousands of dollars would it cost to install
silicon solar panels to meet this need? (1-digit answer)

Polycrystalline silicon solar cell

14% efficiency, ~$1 per watt

To understand how solar PV panels work, we now need to learn about

semiconductors.
Page 20

Semiconductors on the Periodic Table

On the periodic table, metals are blue and semiconductors are red.
The elements lithium, zinc, silicon, and tellurium are:
(1) metals or (2) semiconductors (4-digit answer)

Page 21

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are partially or "semi" conducting.
Unlike in metals, electrons in a semiconductor can only occupy allowed
energies, which are separated by unallowed energies known as the
"Energy Gap."
What energies should most electrons in a semiconductor have?
(a) Allowed lower energies
(b) Unallowed medium energies
Higher
Energy
(c) Allowed higher energies
Allowed energies
Unallowed energies
"Energy Gap"
Lower
Energy

Allowed energies
Page 22

Semiconductor Energy Diagram

Normally, electrons fill up the lower energy "valence band" and none are in the higher
energy "conduction band".
Analogy: Cars in a two-level parking lot, where cars are electrons and the parking deck
levels are the lower and upper energy bands.
Can electrons move in a full valence band? (a) yes (b) no
Analogy: Can cars move to new parking spots if all the spots are filled?

Higher
Energy

Conduction band
(Empty)

Egap = energy "gap"

(electrons not allowed!)
Lower
Energy

Valence band
(Filled with electrons)
Page 23

"Negative" n-type Semiconductor

Dopants are impurity atoms that add electrons (or holes) to the
semiconductor to make it conducting!
Donor atoms add electrons to the conduction band (n-type).
Can electrons move in a partially filled conduction band in an n-type
semiconductor? (a) yes (b) no
n-type semiconductor
negative electrons Conduction
band

(for electrons)

Higher
Energy

Lower
Energy

Filled with electrons

() Electron
(+) donor atom

Valence
band

Page 24

"Positive" p-type Semiconductor

Acceptor atoms remove electrons from the valence band, leaving behind
positive "holes" (p-type).
Can electrons move in a partially empty valence band in a p-type
semiconductor? (a) yes (b) no
p-type semiconductor

(for electrons)

Higher
Energy

Lower
Energy

Conduction
band

"trapped" electrons

positive holes

Valence
band

() acceptor atom
(+) Hole

Page 25

Formation of p-n Junction

To form a solar cell, we need to make a junction between p-type and
n-type semiconductors.
At the p-n junction below, the free electrons initially "diffuse" or move
_______ and the free holes move _________. (2-digit answer)
(1) toward left side (p-type)
p-type

Junction

Higher
Energy

n-type

"free" electrons

Conduction
band
() Electron
(+) donor atom
() acceptor atom
(+) Hole

(for electrons)

Lower
Energy

(2) toward right side (n-type)

"free" holes

Valence
band
Page 26

Formation of p-n Junction

Eventually, the free electrons and holes stop moving and the p-n junction
has a "voltage" like a battery.
After the p-n junction forms, its left side is _______ and
its right side is ________. (2-digit answer)
(1) negative (2) positive
p-n Junction

(for electrons)

Higher
Energy

Lower
Energy

n-type

p-type

Conduction
band
() Electron
(+) donor atom
() acceptor atom
(+) Hole
Valence
band
Page 27

Add Light to Make Electricity!

If a photon of light has enough energy, it can then "kick" an electron into
the conduction band and leave behind a hole in the valence band!
If this happens at the p-n junction, the electron moves ______ and
the hole moves _______, which creates electricity! (2-digit answer)
(1) toward left side (p-type) (2) toward right side (n-type)
p-n Junction

(for electrons)

Higher
Energy

Lower
Energy

n-type

Conduction
band

()
(+)

Bandgap
Energy

p-type
Valence
band

photon in
Page 28

Energy of Light "Photons"

Light comes in energy packets called photons with energy Ephoton that is
inversely related to the wavelength of the light.

E photon

hc 1240 eV nm

(nm)

hc = Planck's constant h speed of light c;

eV = energy unit of "electron-volt";

= wavelength

nm = nanometers

Remember that visible light has wavelengths of 400 to 750 nm.

What is the photon energy (eV) for = 750 nm? (Format = X.X)

Page 29

Materials for Solar Cells: Si and CdTe

Today, the efficiencies of the best silicon and CdTe solar cells are:
(1) less than 20% (2) more than 20% (2-digit answer)

Efficiency (%)

Multijunction

Crystalline Si
20%
CdTe

Year

Page 30

Bandgap Energy of CdTe Solar Cell

Solar cells with a bandgap energy of 1.4 eV have optimum efficiency for sunlight. CdTe solar cells have a
bandgap energy of 1.5 eV.
What is the wavelength (nm) of light having the minimum energy to create electron-hole pairs in
CdTe? (Format = XXX)

This wavelength is: (a) infrared

(b) visible

(c) ultraviolet

Page 31

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Panels

First Solar is a leading company that manufactures thin film CdTe solar panels (2012: $2.7 billion sales
for 1.9 GW capacity). This annual capacity is approximately equivalent to the power generation of:
(a) two windmills (b) two nuclear power plant
Why are thin film CdTe PV panels becoming popular?
(a) more efficient than Si (b) cheaper than Si

Page 32

Manufacturing of CdTe Solar Panels

CdTe solar panels are more cost effective compared to silicon because
the CdTe is a thin film, vs. the bulk material used for silicon.
What is the thickness of a CdTe film compared to a piece of paper?
(a) 2% paper thickness (b) 20% (c) 100%
During Growth
Glass
transparent contact
n-type CdS
p-type CdTe

Completed Structure
Thicknesses not
drawn to scale!

~2 microns thick

Glass
transparent contact
n-type CdS
p-type CdTe
metal contact
Glass

CdTe
Evaporation

<1 min. deposition time!

Page 33

Manufacturing of First Solar CdTe Solar Panels

A production line produces ~1,000 panels (70 W each) per day.
What is the PV power capacity produced by one line in one year?
(a) 2.5 MW

(b) 25 MW

(c) 250 MW

What is equivalent power capacity in number of windmills?

Page 34

Cost of First Solar CdTe Solar Panels

Assuming a cost of $1/Watt for CdTe solar panels, how much would it
cost in thousands of dollars to buy the panels for a 3-kW home?
(1-digit answer)

Page 35

World Solar Panel Production

The lower prices is due to a large increase in supply
How much solar manufacturing capacity is available in 2012?
(a) 10 GW (b) 30 GW
70 GW
(c) 70 GW (d) 100 GW
60 GW

The lower prices have put solar

companies under pressure.

50 GW
Solar Modules

$310 Stock Price for First Solar

Manufacting
Capacity

40 GW
30 GW
20 GW
10 GW

$24
08

09

10

11

12

0 GW
07 08 09 10 11 12

Page 36

Total Price of Installing Solar

What percentage of the total cost of installing a solar array is due to
the solar cells in the U.S, and Germany? (2-digit answer)
(a) 5%
(b) 15%
(c) 40%
(d) 60%

4 kW installation.

Page 37

Solar Photovoltaic Plant in Nevada

El Dorado Solar PV plant with 167,000 panels (~60 W each) on 80 acres
for a maximum power output of 10 MW.
This PV plant is approximately equivalent to how many windmills?
(a) 10 (b) 100 (c) 1,000
The panels are tilted toward which part of the sky?
(a) Northern (b) Southern
YouTube Video
(First Solar)

Panel = 2 ft x 4 ft

YouTube Video
(El Dorado, no sound)

Page 38

"Footprint" for Solar Photovoltaic to Power U.S.

To supply 3 TW using solar photovoltaic power plants, the land "footprint" would be a substantial fraction
of New Mexico.
What are some issues with solar energy?

see calculation in Appendix

3TW

Page 39