Research Methodology

Faisal Abbas, PhD

Theoretical Framework Hypothesis Development

Observation
broad area

Preliminary
data gathering

Data collection
Analysis and
interpretation
Deduction
hypothesis

Problem
definition

Scientific
research design

Report
writing

Theoretical
framework

Generation
Of hypothesis

Report
presentation

Managerial
decision
making

Theoretical Framework: What and Why?

Basis of entire research.

Helps in building and identifying logical
sense of the relationship among the several
factors that are important to the problem.
Integrating logical beliefs with published
research.

Theoretical Framework: What and

Why?
It helps in developing a scientific basis for
investigating the research problem.
Helps in testing certain relationships to
improve our understanding of the situation.
Testable hypothesis can be developed

Theoretical Framework: What and

Why?
First identify the problem and then, identify
the variables that contribute to it.
Literature
survey
provides
a
foundation
for
developing
theoretical/conceptual framework.

solid
a

The theoretical framework elaborates the

relationships among the variables, explain
the theory underlying these relations and
describes the nature and direction of the
relationships.

Theoretical Framework: What and

Why?
Clarity,
identification
and
(relevance) the variables of study
The important relationships
variables must be defined.

labeling

among

the

Give clear explanation of the existing

relationships of different variables.

Variables
There are changeable values of any thing. (e.g. exam
score)
Types of variables:
Dependent
Independent
Moderate
Intervening

Independent variable
It is that variable which influences the dependent
variable.

Moderating Variable
It is that variables which modifies the original
relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables.

Intervening variable

It is the impact on the dependent variable

caused by the independent variables
influence the same.

Why to do sampling?
What is Census?
What is sampling?
Sampling is a valid to a census because;
Entire population survey might be impracticable.
Budget and time constraints restrict data collection.
Need results from data collection quickly.

What is sampling frame ?

The
sampling
frame
for
any
probability sample is a complete list
of all the cases in the population
from which your sample will be
drawn.

Sampling Techniques: An overview

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Probability Sampling
With probability samples the chance , or
probability, of each case being selected from the
population is known and usually equal to all cases.
This means that it is possible to answer research
questions and to achieve objectives that require
you to estimate statistically the characteristics of
the population from the sample.
Consequently, probability sampling is often
associated with survey and experimental research
strategies.

Probability sampling
The probability sampling is four stage
process
1. Identify sampling frame from research objectives
2. Decide on a suitable sample size
3. Select the appropriate technique and the sample
4. Check whether the sample is representative!

Non probability samples

The probability of each case being selected
from the total population is not known.
It is impossible to answer research
questions or to address research objectives
that require you to make statistical
inferences about the characteristics of the
population.
You may still be able to generalize from non
probability samples about the population,
but not on statistical grounds.

Non Probability Sampling:

Techniques
Quota sampling (larger populations)
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Self-selection sampling
Convenience sampling

Secondary Data

Source: Saunders et al. (2006)

Observation: A data collection method

Observation involves the systematic observation,
recording, description analysis and interpretation of
peoples behaviour.

Saunders et al. (2009)

Types of observation
There are two main types of observations;
1). Participant observation
Emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to
actions (qualitative)
2). Structured observation
It is concerned with frequency of actions (quantitative)

Research Interviews

An interview is a purposeful discussion

between two or more people
Kahn and Cannell (1957)

Types of interview used in research are;

1).
2).
3).
4).

Semi-structured
Structured
In-depth
Group
Saunders et al. (2009)

Research purpose and strategy

Forms of interview

Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 10.1 Forms of interview

Types of interview
Structured interviews:
use
questionnaire
based
on
a
predetermined
and
standardized or identical set of questions and we refer to
them as interviewer administered questionnaires.

Semi-structure interviews:
the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be
covered, although these may vary from interview to
interview.
This means that you may omit some questions in particular
interviews, given a specific organizational context that is
encountered in relation to the research topic.
The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow
of conversation.

Types of interview
Unstructured interviews:
Unstructured interviews are informal.
You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in
which you are interested .
We therefore, refer to these as in-depth interviews.
There is no predetermined list of questions to work through
in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea
about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore.
The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely
about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

What is questionnaire?
Techniques of data collection in which
each person is asked to respond to
the same set of questions in a
predetermined order

Adapted from deVaus (2002)

Use of questionnaires
When to use questionnaires
For explanatory or descriptive research.
Linked with other methods in a multiple-methods
research design.
To collect responses from a large sample prior to
quantitative analysis.

Types of Questionnaire
These are the types of questionnaire given in tabular form below;

Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 11.1 Types of questionnaire

Preparing, inputting and checking data

If you intend to undertake quantitative analysis
consider the following:
type of data (scale of measurement);
format in which your data will be input to the
analysis software; SPSS, EVIEWS, STATA, NVIVO.
impact of data coding on subsequent analyses (for
different data types);
methods you intend to use to check data for errors.

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data can be divided into two
distinct groups: categorical and numerical.
Categorical data refer to data whose values
cannot be measured numerically but can be
either classified into sets (categories)
according
to the
characteristics that
identify or describe the variable or placed in
rank order (Berman Brown and Saunders
2008).

Quantitative Data
They can be further sub-divided into descriptive and ranked.
A car manufacturer might categorise the types of cars it
produces as hatchback, saloon and estate. These are known
as descriptive data or nominal data as it is impossible
to define the category numerically or to rank it.
Rather these data simply count the number of occurrences in
each category of a variable.
For virtually all analyses the categories should be
unambiguous and discrete; in other words, having one
particular feature, such as a car being a hatchback, excludes
all other features for that variable. This prevents questions
arising as to which category an individual case belongs.

Quantitative Data
Although, these data are purely descriptive, you can
count them to establish which category has the most and
whether cases are spread evenly between categories
(Morris 2003).
Some statisticians (and statistics) also separate
descriptive data where there are only two categories.
These are known as dichotomous data, as the
variable is divided into two categories, such as the
variable gender being divided into female and male.
Ranked (or ordinal) data are a more precise form
of categorical data.

Quantitative Data

Designing Diagrams and Tables

For both diagrams and tables
Does it have a
descriptive title?

brief

but

clear

and

Are the units of measurement used stated

clearly?
Are the sources of data used stated clearly?
Are there notes to explain abbreviations
and unusual terminology?
Does it state the size of the sample on
which the values in the table are based?

Designing Diagrams and Tables

For diagrams
Does it have clear axis labels?
Are bars and their components in the same
logical sequence?
Is more
areas?

dense

shading

used

for

smaller

Have
you
avoided
misrepresenting
or
distorting the data Is a key or legend
included (where necessary)?

Designing Diagrams and Tables

For tables
Does it have clear column and row
headings?
Are columns and rows in a logical
sequence?

Designing Diagrams and Tables

It best to begin exploratory analysis by
looking at individual variables and their
components.
The key aspects you may need to consider
will be guided by your research question(s)
and objectives, and are likely to include
(Sparrow 1989):
specific values; highest and lowest values;
trends over time; proportions; distributions.

Designing Diagrams and Tables

Once you have explored these, you can then
begin to compare and look for relationships
between variables, considering in addition
(Sparrow 1989):
conjunctions (the point where values for
two or more variables intersect);
totals;
interdependence and relationships.

Difference

37

Qualitative analysis process

There is no standardized procedure for analysing
qualitative data. Despite this, it is still possible
to group data into three main types of
processes:
Summarising (condensation) of meanings;
Summarising, therefore, involves condensing the meaning of large
amounts of text into fewer words.

Categorization (grouping) of meanings;

Involves two activities: developing categories and, subsequently,
attaching these categories to meaningful chunks of data. Through
doing this you will begin to recognize relationships and further
develop the categories you are using to facilitate this.

Structuring
narrative.

(ordering)

of

meanings

using

Narrative structuring ensures that the data are organised both

temporally and with regard to the social or organizational contexts
of the research participant (Kvale 1996). This form of analysis
focuses upon the stories told during the interviews

Getting started with writing

Practical hints

Create time for your writing

Write when your mind is fresh
Find a regular writing place
Set goals and achieve them
Use word processing
Generate a plan for the report
Finish each writing session on a high point
Get friends to read and comment on your work

Structuring your research report

Suggested structure

Abstract
Introduction
Literature review
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Appendices

The nature of research

There is no one best way
for undertaking all
research.

Thank You very much and Good Luck