Unit-3

ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND

CONTROLLERS

Introduction, Electromagnetic principles,

Solenoids and Relays, Electrical drives
stepper motors, servo motors. Programmable
logic controller Programming units
Memory Input Output Modules
Mnemonics Timers Internal relays
Counters Shift Registers Programming the
PLC using Ladder diagram Simple example
of PLC application.

Electromagnetic Principles
The magnetic effect of current was first discovered by oersted
An electric charge in motion sets up a magnetic field around it.
An electric charge moving in an external magnetic field
experiences a force.
A stationary electric charge produces only electrical field. But a
moving electric charge produces both an electric field and a
magnetic field.

due field
to
InMagnetic
this case thefield
magnetic
iscarrying
circular and the magnetic
lines of force are concentric
circles with their centers lying
on the axis of the conductor an
the plane of the circle is
perpendicular to the direction
of the current.

C
u
a straight conductor
r
r
e
Magnetic field
n
t
3

ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

An actuator which receive electrical energy for motion is
known as electrical actuator.

Solenoi
ds

Relay
s

Diode
s

Thyristo
rs

Transist
ors
4

Electrical system

Relay

Solid-state switches
1.Diodes
2.Thyristors and triaces
3.Bipolar transistors
4.Power MOSFETs

Diodes
The diode only passing a current when
forward biased. i.e. with the anode being
positive with respect to the cathode.
If the diode is sufficiently reverse biased,
i.e. a very high voltage, it will break down.
If an alternating voltage is applied across
a diode, it can be regarded as only
switching on when the direction of the
voltage is such as to forward-bias it and
being off in the reverse-biased direction.

The result is that the current through the

diode is half-rectified to become just
the current due to the positive halves
of the input voltage, i.e. the circuit only
switch on for the positive half cycle.

The thyristors and triacs

The thyristors or silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR), can be regarded as a diode which
has a gate controlling the conditions under
which the diode can be switched on.

 With the gate current zero, the

thyristor passes negligible current
when reverse biased.
When forward biased the current is
also negligible until the forward
break-down voltage is exceeded.
The triac is similar to the thyristor
and is equivalent to a pair of
thyristors connected in reverse
parallel on the same chip.

Voltage control
a) thyristor b) triac

Bipolar transistors
Its come in two forms, the npn and the
pnp.
For the npn transistor, the main current
flows in at the collector and out at the
emitter, a controlling signal being
applied to the base.
The pnp transistor has the main current
flowing in at the emitter and out at the
collector, a controlling signal being
applied to the base.

MOSFETs (metal-oxide field-effect

transistors)
Two types;
n- channel
p- channel
The main difference between the use of a
MOSFET for switching and a bipolar
transistor is that no current flows into the
gate to exercise the control.
The gate voltage is the controlling signal.
Thus drive circuitry can be simplified in that
there is no need to be concerned about the
size of the current.

n-channel
channel

p-

Solenoid

A solenoid is a device which is use to convert an electrical

signal into mechanical motion usually in a straight line
A solenoid is a long wire wound as a helix to produce a
reasonably uniform magnetic field B in the interior of the
solenoid coils when the solenoid carries a steady current
I.
When current flows in the
coil,
magnetic
field
is
generated and it reduces
the air gap.
Generally spring is used to
create gap when coil is not
energized.
Small signal can operate
solenoids. Large back emf is
generated when coil is
switched
off.
18

How a Solenoid Works.

1. Apply Current
2. Magnetic Field
Builds
3. Stop and Plunger
Become Attracting
Magnets
4. Magnetic Force
Drives Plunger to
Stop

Basics Types of
Solenoids
Push
Pull
Clapper

Rotary
Open
Closed

Types of Solenoids
Pull Solenoids
Force is Directed
Back towards
Solenoid.
Push Solenoids
Force is Directed
AWAY from
Solenoid

Types of Solenoids
Clapper Solenoids
Typically Force
application can be
the same as a Push
or Pull
Greater amount of
End Force/Hold
Force

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids
Apply a Torque over
a range of Rotation.

Every Company
has different ways
to obtain the
rotary motion.

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids
Other
Configurations:

Types of Solenoids
Open Frame
Solenoids

Closed Frame
Solenoids or
Tubular Solenoids

Typical Solenoid
Applications
Linear Applications
Valve Actuators
Latching/Switching
Pushing/Pulling Objects
Sorting
Shutters

Characteristics
Size as Force
Limited Stroke Lengths
5/8 is a Long Stroke

Typical Solenoid
Applications
Rotary Solenoids
Sorting Machines
Shutter Actuators

Characteristics
Strokes from 5 to
90
As Stroke Increases
Starting Torque

Relays

Relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism

mechanically , but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by low
power signal or where several circuits must be controlled by 1
signal.
The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits ,
repeating the signal coming in from 1 circuit and retransmitting it
to another.
Relays were used extensively
Basic types
of relays
in telephone
exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations .

Solid State
o DC (MOSFETs and Transistors)
o AC (Triacs)
Electromechanical
o Basic
o Latching
o Reed

28

DC Relay (Solid State)

DC Relays utilize transistors and
MOSFETS to switch larger circuits.
When a voltage is applied to the Gate
on one of these components, current is
allowed to pass through them.
Pictured on the left is a MOSFET that
tolerates up to 60 volts at 30 amps.
Solid state relays are advantageous
to mechanical relays because they
have no moving parts and thus never
wear out.
Mechanical relays have a finite number
Image Source:http://www.sparkfun.com/products/10213

AC Relay
AC Relays are another solid
state
relay
that
are
built
primarily from a Triac circuit.
A Triac is a component made of
two
"Thyristors"
which
are
voltage controlled unidirectional
When a voltage is applied
switches.
to a thyristor, the switch will
remain on until there is no more current passing through.
By placing two thyristors in opposite directions, AC current
can be controlled as each thyristor turns on and off due to
the change in current direction.
As seen in the picture above, the two thyristors are placed
in opposite directions.
AC Relays with Triacs are often used in lighting
applications where dimming is involved.
Image Source: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_7/6.html

Electromechanical
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire
wrapped round a soft iron core , an iron yoke which provides a
low reluctance path for magnetic flux , a movable iron armature
and one or more sets of contacts.
The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to
one or more sets of moving contacts .
There
are
also
electromechanical relays that are
by default in the "ON" state and
require a voltage to turn off.
Electromechanical relays are
preferred to solid state in
applications
with
large
inductances
and
applications
sensitive to static charge.

When electric current is

passed through the coil it
generates a magnetic field
that activates the armature ,
and
the
consequent
movement of the movable
contact
either
makes
or
breaks a connection with a
fixed contact.
If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was deWhen the current to the coil is switched off , the armature
energized
,
then
the
is returned by a force , approx. half as strong as magnetic
movement opens the contacts
force , to its relaxed position .
and breaks the connection.
In a low voltage application relays reduces noise and in a
high voltage application it reduces arcing .

32

Relay Applications

Specifications
Solid State - The most common solid state relays are found in
the range of 30 volts to 240 volts and with control voltages in the
range of 3 to 32 volts.
Mechanical - The range of mechanical relays varies greatly
from small relays used for control within cars to large relays
used at electrical substations. Typically the power required to
control the relay is proportional to the power being switched.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLERS (PLC)
PLC is a digital electronic device that uses a
programmable memory to store instructions
and to implement functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in
order to control machines and processes and
has been specifically designed to make
programming easy.

LOGIC The term logic is used because the programming

is primarily concerned with implementing logic and
switching operations.
PLCs are similar to computers but have certain features
which are specific to their use as controllers. These are:
1. They are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations,
temperature, humidity and noise.
2. The interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the
controller.
3. They are easily programmed.

PLC

PLC

Input channel

Relay type of output

Latching

Motor latching

Sequencing

A+ B+, A- B-

Cylinder sequencing

Mnemonics
In ladder diagram each horizontal rung can be
programmed by the mnemonic code.
For example the operation of adding data to an
accumulator might be represented by ADDA.
Mnemonic code is also known as memoryaiding code.
Writing a program using mnemonics is easier
because they are an abbreviated version of the
operation performed by the instruction.

Mnemonics

Mnemonics

Timers

Internal Relays
The term internal relay, auxiliary relay or marker is used for
what can be considered as a internal relay in the PLC.
These behave like relays with their associated contacts, but
in reality are not actual relays but simulations by the
software of the PLC.
Some have battery back-up so that they can be used in
circuits to ensure a safe shut-down of plant in the event of a
power failure.
IR can be very useful aids in the implementation of
switching sequence.
IR are often used when there are programs with multiple
input conditions.

COUNTERS
Counters are used when there is a need a count
a specified number of contact operations.
For example where items pass along a
conveyor into boxes, and when the specified
number of items has passed into a box, the
next item is diverted into another box.
Counter circuit are supplied as an internal
feature of PLCs.
up - counter
down - counter

SHIFT REGISTERS
A number of internal relays can be grouped
together to form a register which can provide a
storage area for a series sequence of individual
bits.
4 bits 4 internal relays
8 bits 8 internal relays
The term shift register is used because the bits
can be shifted along by 1 bit when there is a
suitable input to the register.