CIRCUITS

CIRCUITS

A closed conducting path through which an

electric current flows or is intended to flow

Parameters
The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance,
inductance, and capacitance which may be lumped or
distibuted.

CIRCUITS AND

CIRCUITS
TYPE
SLinear Circuit
Is one whose parameters are constant (i.e. They do not
change with voltage and current.

Non-Linear Circuit
Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and
current.

Bilateral Circuit
Is one whose properties or characteristics are the same
in either direction.

Unilateral Circuit
Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change
with the direction of its operation.

CIRCUITS AND

ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
Connection of various electric elements in any
manner

TYPE
SPassive Network

With no source of emf.

Active Network
Contains one or more than one sources of emf.

CIRCUITS AND

ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
PART
SNode
A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements
and/or branches are connected together.

Branch
Part of a network which lies netween two junctions.

Loop
A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is
encountered more than once.

Mesh
A loop that contains no other loop within it.

CIRCUITS AND

OHMS LAW
OHMS LAW

One of the most fundamental law in electrical

circuits relating voltage, current and resistance
Developed in 1827 by German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm

CIRCUITS AND

OHMS LAW
According to Ohms Law, the current (I) flowing
in an electrical circuit is directly is directly
proportional to the applied voltage (E) and
inversely proportional to the equivalent
resistance (R) of the circuit and mathematically
expressed as:

CIRCUITS AND

SERIES CIRCUITS
SERIES circuits

A circuit connection in which the components

are connected to form one conducting path

SERIES/PARALLEL

SERIES CIRCUITS
Voltage Division for Series
Circuit:

EX = ET
RX
Where: EX voltage across the resistor concerned
ET total voltage across the circuit
RX the resistor T
concerned
RT the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL circuits

A circuit connection in which the components

are connected to form more than 1 conducting
path

SERIES/PARALLEL

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Voltage Division for Parallel
Circuit:

IX = IT
Req

Where: IX current concerned flowing through resistor Rx

IT total current of the circuit
Req equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except
T
Rx
RT the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL

KIRCHHOFFS LAW
KIRCHHOFFS LAW

More comprehensive than Ohms Law and is used in

solving electrical
Termed as Laws of Electric Networks
Formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchhof

Kirchhoffs Current Law

(KCL)

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the

current meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.

NETWORK

KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW

In short the sum of currents entering a node
equals the sum of currents leaving the node
Current towards the node, positive current
Current away from the node, negative current

IB + IC + ID = IA
(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0

NETWORK

KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
(KVL)

The algebraic sum of the products of currents and

resistances in each of thr conductors in any
closed path (or mesh) in a network PLUS the
algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is zero.

NETWORK

KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

In short, the sum of the voltages around the loop
is equal to zero
For voltage sources, if loops enters on minus and goes
out on plus, positive voltage and if loops enters on plus
and goes out on minus, negative voltage.
For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as
current direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop
direction is opposite to the current direction, positive
voltage drop.

NETWORK

MESH ANALYSIS
MESH analysis

A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh

currents.

Loop Analysis Procedure:

1. Label each of the loop/mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to loops/meshes to form
equations with current variables.
a.

b.

For N independent loops, we may

write N total equations using KVL
around each loop. Loop currents are
those currents flowing in a loop;
they are used to define branch
currents.
Current sources provide constraint
equations.

3. Solve the equations to determine the

user defined loop currents.

NETWORK

NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL analysis

A systematic application of KCL at a node and after

simplifying the resulting KCL equation, the node
voltage can be calculated.

Consist of finding the node

voltages at all principal nodes
with respect to the reference
node.

PRINCIPAL node a node with

three or more circuit elements
joined together.
Reference node the node from
which the unknown voltages
are measured.

NETWORK

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
SUPERPOSITION theorem

The current through or voltage across, an element in

a linear
bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the
current or voltages produced independently in each
source.

In general:
Number of network to analyze is equal to number of
independent sources.
To consider effects of each source independently,
sources must be removed and replaced without affecting
the final result:
All voltage sources >> short circuited
All current sources >> open circuited

NETWORK

COMPENSATION THEOREM
COMPENSATION theorem

If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in

which a current I flows is changed by a finite
amount dZ, then the change in the currents in all
other branches of the network may be calculated
by inserting a voltage source of -IdZ into that
branch with all other voltage sources replaced by
their internal impedances.

NETWORK

RECIPROCITY THEOREM
RECIPROCITY theorem

If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a

network causes a current I to flow in another branch of
the network, then the same voltage source E acting in
the second branch would cause an identical current I to
flow in the first branch.
Simply mean,
E and I are mutually transferable, or
The receiving point and the sending point in a network are
interchangeable, or
Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL ammeter
in any network will not change the ammeter reading,
Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL voltmeter
in any network will not change the voltmeter reading

NETWORK

MILLMANS THEOREM
MILLMANS theorem

A special case of the application of Thevenins

Theorem/or Nortons Theorem used for finding the
COMMON voltage (VAB) across any network which
contains a number of parallel voltage sources.
In Millmans Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a
parallel network of branches, each branch containing
a resistor or series battery/resistor combination.
Millmans theorem is applicable only to those cicuits
which can be re-drawn accordingly.

NETWORK

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

THOREM
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER theorem

For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply,

maximum power will be delivered to the load when
the resistance is equal to the internal resistance of
the source.
For maximum power transfer: RS = RL

NETWORK

THEVENINS THEOREM
THEVENINS theorem

Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral

network of a fixed resistances and voltage source/s
may be replaced by a single voltage source (VTH)
and a series of internal resistance (RTH).

where:
VTH
TH the open circuit voltage which appears across the two terminals from
where
the load resistance has been removed.
RTH
TH the resistance looking back into the network across the two terminals
with all
the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their internal
resistances (if any)
and all current sources by infinite resistance.

NETWORK

NORTONS THEOREM
THEVENINS theorem

Any two-terminal active network containing

voltage sources and resistances when viewed from
its output terminals, is equivalent to a constantcurrent source (IN) and a parallel internal resistance
(RN).

where:
IN the current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the output
terminals.
RN the resistance of the network when viewed from the open circuited terminals
after
all voltage sources being replaced by open circuits.

NETWORK

THEVENIN-NORTON
TRANSFORMATION

NETWORK

NORTON-THEVENIN
TRANSFORMATION

NETWORK

EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
DELTA to WYE

The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is

given by the PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet
at its end divided by the SUM of the three delta
resistances.

NETWORK

EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
WYE to DELTA

The equivalent delta resistance between any two twrminals

is given by the SUM of a star resistance between those
terminals PLUS the PRODUCT of these two star resistances
DIVIDED by the third resistance.

NETWORK

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.

A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance

of 20 ohms. What is the expected resistance of the bulb
that is connected across the battery to attain a maximum
power transfer?
a. 20 ohms
b. 10 ohms
c. 5 ohms
d. 2 ohms

2. In a sireis ciscuit a resistors 2200 and 4500 with an

impressed voltage of 10, what is the circuit current in mA?
a. 1.49
b. 6.67
c. 4.34
d. 1.34

REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. The current needed to operate a soldering iron which
has a rating of 600 watts at 110 volts is.
a. 5.455 A
b. 66,000 A
c. 18,200 A
d. 0.182 A
4. The ammeter reads 230 ampere while the voltmeter is
115 volts. What is the power inKW at the time of
reading
a. 264.5
b. 2645
c. 264500
d.26.45

REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. What is the type of circuit whose parameters are
constant which do not change with voltage or current?
a. Lumped
b. Tuned
c. Reactive
d. Linear
6. What is the resistance of two equal valued resistor
series?
a. Twice as one
b. The sum of their reciprocal
c. The difference of both
b. The product of both

REVIEW QUESTIONS
7. What do you expect when you use two 20 kohms, 1
watts resistors in parallel instead of one 10 kohms, 1
watt?
a. Provide more power
b. Provide lighter current
c. Provide less power
d. Provide wider tolerance
8. The voltage applied in DC circuit having a power of 36
watts and a total resistance of 4 ohms.
a. 6 V
b. 9V
c. 12 V
d. 24 V

REVIEW QUESTIONS
9. When resistor are connected in series, what happens?
a. The effective resistance
b. Nothing
c. The tolerance
d. The effective resistance is increased
10. Find the thevenins impedance equivalent across R2
of a linear close circuit having 10-V supply in series
with the resistors (R1=100 ohms and R2=200 ohms)
a. 666 ohms
b. 6.66 ohms
c. 66.6 ohms
d. 6666 ohms

REVIEW QUESTIONS
11. How much power does electronic equipment consume,
assuming a 5.5A current flowing and a 120-V power
source.
a. 60 W
b. 66 W
c. 660 W
d. 125.5 W
12. How many nodes are needed to completely analyze a
circuit according to Kirchoffs Current Law.
a. One
b. Two
c. All nodes in the circuit
d. One less than the total number of nodes in the circuit

REVIEW QUESTIONS
13. A common connection between circuit elements or
conductors from different branches.
a. Node
b. Junction
c. Ground
d. Mesh
14. It is used to denote a common electrical point of zero
potential.
a. Short circuit
b. Reference point
c. Open circuit
d.ground

REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Loop currents should be assumed to flow in
which direction?
a. Straight
b. Clockwise
c. Counterclockwise
d. Either b or c
16. In mesh analysis, we apply:
a. KCL
b. KVL
c. Source
d. Millmans theorem

REVIEW QUESTIONS
17. Which of the following is not a valid expression of
Ohms Law
a. R = PI
b. E = IR
c. I = E/R
d. R = E/I
18. Using ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current
if the applied voltage increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current increases
c. Current remians constant
d. Current decreases

REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. According to ohms law, what happen to the circuit
current if the circuit resistance increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current decreases
c. Current increases
d. Current remains constant
20. If the resistance of a circuit is doubled and the applied
voltage is kept constant, the current will be _______ .
a. Be quaddrupled
b. Remains
c. Be cut in half
d. Be doubled

REVIEW QUESTIONS
21. It is an electrical current that flows in one
direction only?
a. Normal current
b. Alternating current
c. Direct current
d. Eddy current
22. In Ohms Law, what is E/R?
a. Amperage
b. Voltage
c. Resistance
d. Power

REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. A 33-Kohm resistor is connected in series with a parallel
combination made up of 56-Kohm resistor and a 7.8-kohm
resistor. What is the total combined reistance of the three
resistors?
a. 390667 ohms
b. 49069 ohms
c. 63769 ohms
d. 95000 ohms
24. Which of the following cannot be included in a loop of
Kirchoffs Volatage Law
a. Current source
b. Voltage source
c. Resistance
d. Reactance

REVIEW QUESTIONS
25. A series connected circuit consists of 3 loads and consume a
total power of 50 Watts. It was reconfigured such that 2 are
in parallel and the other load is in series with a combination.
What is the applied expected powers to be consumed them?
a. 50 watts
b. 25 watts
c. 75 watts
d. 45 watts
26. If the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4,
the substance is usually
a. Semiconductor
b. An insulator
c. A conductor
d. None of the above

REVIEW QUESTIONS
27. Electric current in a wire is the flow of
a. Free electrons
b. Valence electrons
c. Bound electrons
d. Atoms
28. EMF in a circuit is a form
a. Power
b. Energy
c. Charge
d. none

REVIEW QUESTIONS
29. The SI unit of specific-resistance is
a. Mho
b. Ohm-n
c. Ohm-sq.-m
d. Ohm-cm
30. The resistance of a material is ___ its area of
cross-section
a. Directly proportional
b. Inversely proportional
c. Independent
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. The value of , i.e., the temperarure coefficient of
resistance depends upon the ____ of the material.
a. Length
b. Volume
c. X-sectional area
d. Nature and temperature
32. The value of of a conductor is 1/236 C. The value of
a is
a. 1/218 C
b. 1/272 C
c. 1/254 C
d. 1/265 C

REVIEW QUESTIONS
33. Electrical appliances are not connected in series
because
a. Series circuit is complicated
b. Power loss is greater
c. Appliances have different current rating
d. None of these
34. Electrical appliances are connected in parallel
because it
a. Is a simple circuit
b. Results in reduced power loss
c. Draw less current
d. Makes the operation of the appliances independent
from each other

REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. The hot resistance of a 100W, 250V incandecent
lamp is
a. 2.5 ohms
b. 625 ohms
c. 25 ohms
d. None of these
36. When a number of resistances are connecte in
parallel, the total resistance is
a. Less than the smallest resistance
b. Greater than the smallest resistance
c. Between the smallest and greater resistance
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
37. If the resistances, each of value 36 ohms are
connected in parallel, the total resistance is
a. 2 ohms
b. 54 ohms
c. 36 ohms
d. None of these
38. Two incandecent lamps of 100 W, 200V are in parallel
across the 200 V. The total resistance will be
a. 800 ohms
b. 200 ohms
c. 400 ohms
d. 600 ohms

REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Three resistors are connected in parallel and draws 1A,
2.5A, and 3.5A, rspectively. If the applied voltage is
210V, what is the total resistance of the circuit?
a. 5 ohms
b. 147 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 73.5 ohms
40. An ordinary dry cell can deliver about ____
continuously.
a. 3 A
b. 2 A
c. 1/8 A
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. Four cells of internal resistance 1 ohms, are
connected in parallel. The battery resistance will be
a. 4 ohms
b. 0.25 ohms
c. 2 ohms
d. 1 ohms
42. Of the following combination of units, the one that is
not equal to the watt is
a. Joule/sec
b. Ampere-volt
c. Ampere-ohm
d. Ohm/volt

REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. The power dissipated in a circuit is not equal to
a. VI
b. IR
c. V/R
d. IR/V
44. An electric iron draws a current of 15A when
connected to 120V power source. Its resistance is
a. 0.125 ohms
b. 8 ohms
c. 16 ohms
d. 1,800 ohms

REVIEW QUESTIONS
45. The power rating of an electric motor which draws a
current of 3 A when operated at 120 V is
a. 40 W
b. 360 W
c. 540 W
d. 1,080 W
46. When a 100W, 240V, light bulb is operated at 200V,
the current that flows in it is
a. 0.35 A
b. 0.42 A
c. 0.5 A
d. 0.58 A

REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. The equivalent resistance of a network of three 2 ohm
resistors cannot be
a. 0.67 ohms
b. 1.5 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 6 ohms
48. A 12V potential difference is applied across a series
combination of four six-ohms resistors. The current in
each six-ohm resistor will be
a. 0.5 A
b. 2 A
c. 8 A
d. 6 A

REVIEW QUESTIONS
49. A 12V potential difference is applied across a parallel
combination of four six-ohms resistors. The current in
each six-ohm resistor will be
a. 0.5 A
b. 2 A
c. 8 A
d. 6 A
50. The dissipation of energy can cause burns because it
proceduces
a. Heat
b. Fire
c. Friction
d. Overload

REVIEW QUESTIONS
51. The rate of expenditure of energy is
a. Voltage
b. Power
c. Current
d. Energy
52. In a simple DC power line, the wire that carries
the current from the generator to the load is called
a. Return wire
b. Feeder
c. Outgoing wire
d. Conductor

REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. A circuit in which the resistance are connected in a
continuous run, i.e., end-to-end is a _____ circuit.
a. Saries
b. Parallel
c. Series-parallel
d. None of these
54. A battery is connected to an external circuit. The
potential drop with the battery is proportional to
a. The EMF of the battery
b. The current of the circuit
c. The equivqlent circuit resistance
d. Power dissipated in the circuit

REVIEW QUESTIONS
55. Two wires A and B have the same cross-sectional area and
are made of the same material. Ra = 600 ohms and Rb =
100 ohms. The number of times A is longer tahn B is
a. 6
b. 2
c. 4
d. 5
56. A coil has a resistance of 100 ohms at 90 C. At 100 C, its
resistance is 101 ohms. The temperature coefficient of the
wire is
a. 0.01
b. 0.1
c. 0.0001
d. 0.001

REVIEW QUESTIONS
57. The resistance of a conductor does not depend on
its
a. Resistivity
b. Length
c. Cross-section
d. Mass
58. A material which has a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance is usually a/an
a. Insulator
b. Conductor
c. Semi-conductor
d. All of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
59. Which of the following statements is true both for a
series and a parallel dc circuit?
a. Power additive
b. Current are additive
c. Voltage are additive
d. All of these
60. Two resistors are said to be in series when
a. Both carry the same value of current
b. Total current equals the sum of the branch current
c. Sum of IR drops equal to EMF
d. Same current phases through both

REVIEW QUESTIONS
61. According to KCL as applied to a juction in a network of
conductors.
a. Total sum of currents meeting at the juction is Zero
b. No current can leave the juction without same current
passing throuhg it
c. Net current flow at he juction is positive
d. Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at the juction
is zero
62. Kirchoffs Current Law is applicable only to
a. Closed-loop circuit
b. Electronic circuits
c. Juctions in a network
d. Electric circuit

REVIEW QUESTIONS
63. Kirchoffs Voltage Las\w is concerned with
a. IR drops
b. Battery EMFs
c. Juction voltages
d. A and b
64. According to KVL, the algebraic sum of all IR drops
and EMFs in any closed loop of a network is always
a. Zero
b. Negative
c. Positive
d. Determined by battery EMF

REVIEW QUESTIONS
65. The algebraic sign of an IR drops primarily dependent
upon
a. The amount of current flowing through it
b. Direction of current
c. The value of the resistance
d. The battery connection
66. Choose the wrong statement. In the node voltage
technique of solvingnetwork parameters, the choice of
the reference node does not
a. Affect the operation of the circuit
b. Change the voltage across the element
c. Alter the potential difference between any pair of nodes
d. Affect the volatge of various nodes

REVIEW QUESTIONS
67. The nodal analysis is primarily based on the
application of
a. KVL
b. KCL.
c. Ohms Law
d. b and c
68. Superposition theorem can be applied only to
circuits having ____ elements
a. Non-linear
b. Passive
c. Linear bilateral
d. Resistive

REVIEW QUESTIONS
69. The superposition theorem is essentially based
on the concept of
a. Reciprocity
b. Linearity
c. non-linearity
d. Duality
70. What are the electrons in motion called?
a. Current variation
b. Electric current
c. Electron velocity
d. Dynamic electricity

REVIEW QUESTIONS
71. An active element in a circuit is one which _____ .
a. Receives energy
b. Supplies energy
c. a or b
d. None of these
72. The siperposition theorem is used when the
circuit contains
a. A single voltage source
b. A number of voltage source
c. Passive element only
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
73. Thevenins theorem is ____ form of equivalent
circuit.
a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these
74. Nortons theorem is ____ form of an equivalent
circuit.
a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
75. In the analysis of vacuum tube circuit, we can
generally use ____ theorem.
a. Nortons
b. Thevenins
c. Superposition
d. Reciprocity
76. In the analysis of transistor circuits, we generally use
_____ theorem.
a. Voltage
b. Current
c. Both a and b
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
77. Under the condition of Maximum Power Transfer,
the efficiency is
a. 75 %
b. 100 %
c. 50 %
d. 25 %
78. The maximum power transfer theorem is used in
a. Electronic circuits
b. Home lightning
c. Power sytem
d. None of the above

REVIEW QUESTIONS
79. delta/star or star/delta transformation
technique is applied to
a. One terminal
b. Two terminal
c. Three terminal
d. None of these
80. _____ will be used under elctrostatics.
a. Incandecent lamp
b. Electric motor
c. Electric iron
d. Lightning rod

REVIEW QUESTIONS
81. The value of the absulute permitivity of air is ______
F/m.
a. 9 x 10
b. 8,854 x 10 ^ -12
c. 5 x 10
d. 9 X 10
82. When two similar charges eaach of 1 coulumb each
are placed 1m apart in air, then the force of repusion is
a. 8 x10 N
b. 10 N
c. 9 x 10^9 N
d. 5 x 10 N

REVIEW QUESTIONS
83. Another name for dielectric strength is
a. Potetial gradient
b. Breakdown voltage
c. Dielectric constant
d. Electric intensity
84. A heater connected to a 100 V supply, generates
10,000 J of heat energy is 10 sec. How much time is
needed to generate the same amount of heat when it is
used on 220V line?
a. 5 sec
b. 2.5 sec
c. 7.5 sec
d. 4 sec.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
85. Kirchoffs current law is applied in what type of circuit
analysis?
a. Mesh
b. Thevenins
c. Superposition
d. Nodal
86. Inductance and capacitance are not relevant in a dc
circuit because
a. Frequency of DC is zero
b. It is a simple circuit
c. They do not exist in dc circuit
d. None of the above

REVIEW QUESTIONS
87. Three resistors of 3 ohms resistance each are
connected in delta, the equivalent wye-connected
resistors will be
a. 1 ohm
b. 3 ohms
c. 9 ohms
d. 0.111 ohm
88. Cells are conneted in series when _____ is required
a. High current
b. High voltage
c. High power
d. All of these

ALTERNATING CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT

A current that is constantly changing in

amplitude and direction.

Advantages of AC:
Magnitude can easily be changed (stepped-up or stepped down)
with the use of a transformer
Can be produced either single phase for light loads, two phase for
control motors, three phase for power distribution and large motor
loads or six phase for large scale AC to DC conversion.

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating
Signal

f =
1

=
v

Period (T) the time of one complete cycle in seconds

Frequency (f) the number of cycles per second (Hertz)
a. 1 cycle/second (cps) = 1 Hertz (Hz)
b. Proper operation of electrical equipmnent requires specific
frequency
c. Frequencies lower than 60 Hz would cause flicker when used in
lightning
Wavelength () the length of one complete cycle
Propagation Velocity (v) the speed of the signal
Phase () an angilar measurement that specifies the position of a

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
Is the most common AC waveform that is practically
generated by generators used in household and
industries
General equation for sine wave:

A(t) = Am sin (t + )
Where:
a(t) instantaneous amplitude of voltage or current at a
given time (t)
Am maximum voltage or current amplitude of the signal
angular velocity in rad/sec; = 2f
t time (sec)
phase shift ( + or in degrees)

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS
Measurements of AC
Magnitude
AMPLITUDE

It is the height of an AC waveform as depicted on a graph

over time (peak, peak-to-peak, average, or RMS quantity)

PEAK AMPLITUDE the height of an AC waveform as

measured from the zero mark to the highest positive or
lowest negative point on a graph. Also known as the crest
amplitude of a wave.

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS
PEAK-TO-PEAK AMPLITUDE the total height of an AC
waveform as measured from maximum positive to
maximum negative peaks on a graph. Often abbreviated as
P-P

BASIC AC

AC WAVEFORMS
AVERAGE AMPLITUDE the mathematical mean of all a
waveforms points over the period of one cycle. Technically, the
average amplitude of any waveform with equal-area portions
above and below the zero line on a graph is zero.

BASIC AC

For a sine wave, the average value so calculated is

approximately 0.637 of its peak value.

AC WAVEFORMS
RMS AMPLITUDE - RMS stands for Root Mean Square,
and is a way of expressing an AC quantity of voltage or
current in terms functionally equivalent to DC. Also known
as the equivalent or DC equivalent value of an AC
voltage or current.

BASIC AC

For a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707 of its

AC WAVEFORMS
The crest factor of
an AC waveform is
the ratio of its peak
(crest) to its RMS
value.
The form factor of
an AC waveform is
the ratio of its RMS
value to its average
value.

BASIC AC

AC QUANTITIES

BASIC AC

AC QUANTITIES
Inductive Reactance (XL)
The property of the inductor to oppose the alternating current

XL =
2fL

Inductive Susceptance (BL)

Reciprocal of inductive reactance

BL =
1

BL =

XL

Capacitive Reactance (XC)

2fL
The property of a capacitor to oppose alternating current

XC =
1

Capacitive Susceptance (BC)

Reciprocal of capacitive reactance
d

BL = 1
2fC
2fC
XC

BL =

BASIC AC

AC QUANTITIES
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current

Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the
reactances involved

Z = R + jXeq
Z|

Where: |Z| = R2
+ X2
=
Arctan Xeq
R

Z=|

BASIC AC

AC QUANTITIES
If I = Im is the resulting current drawn by a passive, linear
RLC circuit from a source voltage V = Vm , then

Z = V = Vm
= Z
I
Im
Z cos + jZsin = R + jX = R2 + X2
tan-1 X
Where: Z = Vm = R2 R
+ X2 = magnitude of the impedance
Im
= = tan-1 X = phase angle of the impedance
R
R = Zcos = active or real component of the impedance
X = Zsin = reactive or quadrature component of
impedance

BASIC AC

AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)

The reciprocal of impedance

Expressed in siemens or mho (S)
Y = Im = Y = Ycos y + jYsin
y = G + jB
Vm
Y = G2 + B 2
tan-1 B

Where: Y = Im = G2 + B
G2 =
Z
y = = = tan-1

1 = magnitude of the admittance

B = phase angle of the admittance

G
G = Ycos y = conductive/conductance component

BASIC AC

B = Ysin y = susceptive/susceptance component

AC RESISTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = R
With an AC circuit like this which is purely resistive, the
relationship of the voltage and current is as shown:

Voltage (e) is in phase with the current (i)

Power is never a negative value. When the current is positive
(above the line), the voltage is also positive, resulting in a
power (p=ie) of a positve value
This consistent polarity of a power tell us that the resistor is
always dissipating power, taking it from the source and
releasing it in the form of heat energy. Whether the current is
negative or positive, a resistor still dissipated energy.

AC

AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = jXL

The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an L circuit is that

current lags voltage by 90 electrical degrees

Because the current and voltage waves arae 90o out of phase, there
sre times when one is positive while the other is negative, resulting in
equally frequent occurences of negative instantaneous power.
Negative power means that the inductor is releasing power back to
the circuit, while a positive power means that it is absorbing power
from the circuit.
The inductor releases just as much power back to the circuit as it

AC

AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
o Inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor offers
to alternating current due to its phase-shifted storage and
release of energy in its magnetic field. Reactance is
symbolized by the capital letter X and is measured in
ohms just like resistance (R).
o Inductive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XL
= 2fL
o The angular velocity of an AC circuit is another way of
expressing its frequency, in units of electrical radians per
second instead of cycles per second. It is symbolized by the
lowercase Greek letter omega, or .

AC

o Inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency. In

AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = -jXC

The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an C circuit is that

leads the voltage by 90 electrical degrees

The current through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in

voltage across it
A capacitors opposition to change in voltage translates to an
opposition to alternating voltage in general, which is by definition
always changing in instantaneous magnitude and direction. For any
given magnitude of AC voltage at a given frequency, a capacitor of
given size will conduct a certain magnitude of AC current.

AC

AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
o Capacitive reactance is the opposition that a capacitor
offers to alternating current due to its phase-shifted storage
and release of energy in its electric field. Reactance is
symbolized by the capital letter X and is measured in
ohms just like resistance (R).
o Capacitive reactance can be calculated using this formula:
XC = 1/(2fC)
o Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency.
In other words, the higher the frequency, the less it
opposes (the more it conducts) the AC flow of electrons.

AC

SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR
CIRCUIT
For a series resistor-inductor circuit, the voltage and current
relation is determined in its phase shift. Thus, current lags
voltage by a phase shift ()

Impedance (Z) = R + jXL

Admittance (Y) =
1
R + jXL

= R jXL
2
R2 + jXLAC

SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR
CIRCUIT

Phase shift () = Arctan ( XL ) |Z| = R2

+ jXL2 = e
o When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits,
R
the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere
i
between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase
angle somewhere between 0o and -90o. Series AC circuits
exhibit the same fundamental properties as series DC
circuits: current is uniform throughout.

AC

SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR
CIRCUIT
For a series resistor capacitor circuit, the voltage and current
relation is determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the
voltage by an angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.

Impedance (Z) =
R jXC
Admittance (Y) =
1
R jXC

= R + jXC
2
R2 + jXCAC

SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR
CIRCUIT

Phase shift () = Arctan ( XC )

+ jXC2 = e
R
i

|Z| = R2

AC

PARALLEL RESISTORINDUCTOR

Y = G jL

where:

G conductance = 1/R

L susceptance = 1/XL
Z = E , by Ohms Law
I
The basic approachwith regarda to parallel circuits is using
admittance because it is additive

AC

PARALLEL RESISTORINDUCTOR
o When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel
circuits (just like in series cicuits), the total impedance will
have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o. The
circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere between
0o and -90o.
o Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties
as parallel DC circuits: voltage is uniform throughour the
circuit, brach currents add to form the total current, and
impedances diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to
form the total impedance.

AC

PARALLEL RESISTORCAPACITOR

Y = G + jC

where:

G conductance = 1/R

C susceptance = 1/XC
o When resistors and capacitors are mixxed together in
circuits, the total impedance will have a phase angle
somewhere between 0o and -90o.

AC

APPARENT POWER (S)

APPARENT POWER

Represents the rate at which the total energy is

supplied to the system
Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
It has two components, the Real Power and the
Capacitive or Inductive Reactive Power

S = Vrms Irms =
Irms2 |Z|
POWER IN AC

APPARENT POWER (S)

Power Triangle

Complex Power

S=P
jQ

POWER IN AC

REAL POWER (R)

REAL POWER

The power consumed by the resistive component

Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
Measured in Watts (W)
It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power
factor

Power Factor

P=
Scos

Cosine of the power factor angle ()

Measure of the power that is dissipated by the cicuit in
relation to the apparent power and is usually given as a
decimal or percentage

Pf =
cos

POWER IN AC

REAL POWER (R)

Ratio of the Real Power to the Apparent Power P
(
)

when:
Pf = 1.0
Pf = lagging
Pf = leading
Pf = 0.0 lag
Pf =
0.0 lead
Power
factor
Angle ()

I
I
I
I
I

is in phase with V; resistive system

lags V by ; inductive system
leads V by ; capacitive system
lags V by 90o; purely inductive
leads V by 90o; purely capacitive

The angle between the apparent power and the real poweer in the
power triangle
volts

Let

v(t) = Vm cos(t + v)
V = Vrms v

POWER IN AC

i(t) = Im cos(t + i) A

REAL POWER (R)

Instantaneous Power (watts)

P(t) = v(t) i(t)

P(t) = VmIm cos (v i) + VmIm cos (2t + v +
Average Power (watts)

P(t) = VmIm cos (v i) = VmIm cos

Where: = phase shfit between v(t) and i(t) or the phase
angle of the equivalent impedance

POWER IN AC

REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)

REACTIVE POWER

Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any

of the energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor)
Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless
power
Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
When the capacitor and inductor are both present, the reactive
power associated with them take opposite signs since they do
not store or release energy at the same time
It is positive for inductive power (Q L) and negative for capacitive
power (QC)

Q = VmIm
sin

Reactive factor
Ratio of the Reactive Power to the Apparent Power
Sine of the power factor angle ()

Rf =
sin

POWER IN AC

BALANCED THREE PHASE

SYSTEMS
BALANCED 3-PHASE SYSTEM

Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a

120o phase displacement from one another. This means that a
balance three-phase system provides three voltages(and currents)
that are equal in magnitude and separated by 120 o from each other

CLASSIFICATION
Three-Phase, 3-wire systems
Provide only one type of voltage(line to line) both single
phase and three phase loads
Three-Phase, 4-wire systems
Provide two types of voltages(line to line and line to
neutral) to both single phase and three phase loads

BALANCED THREE PHASE

BALANCED THREE PHASE

SYSTEMS
BALANCED Y-system
VLL = 3 VLN and

IL = IP

VLL and VLN are out of phase by 30o

BALANCED -system
IL = 3 IP and

VLL = VLN

IL and IP are out of phase by 30o

Where: VLL or VL - line to line or line voltage
VLN or VP - line to neutral or phase voltage
IL - line current
IP - phase current

BALANCED THREE PHASE

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Note: for balanced 3-phase systems:
IA + IB + IC
=0
VAN + VBN + VCN = 0
VAB + VBC + VCA = 0

THREE-PHASE
POWER
VJH
P = 3VPIPcos = 3 VLIL coswatts

Q = 3VPIPsin = 3 VLIL sin vars

S = 3VPIP = 3 VLIL

va

BALANCED THREE PHASE

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The description of two sine waves that are in step with
each other going through their maximum and minimum
points ate the same time and in the same direction.
a. Sine waves in phase
b. Stepped sine waves
c. Phased sine waves
d. Sine waves in coordination
2. Term used for the out of phase, non-productive power
associated with inductors and capacitors.
a. Effective power
b. True power
c. Reactive power
d. Peak envelope power

REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. Refers to a reactive power.
a. Wattles, non productive power
b. Power consumed in circuit Q
c. Power loss because of capacitor leakage
d. Power consumed in wire resistance in an inductor
4. Term used for an out-of-phase, non-productive
power associated with inductors and capacitors.
a. Effective power
b. Reactive power
c. Peak envelope power
d. True power

REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. The product of current and voltage in an AC circuit
refers to the
a. Real power
b. Useful power
c. Apparent power
d. DC power
6. The distance covered or traveled by a waveform
during the time interval of one complete cycle.
a. Frequency
b. Wavelength
c. Time slot
d. Wave time

REVIEW QUESTIONS
7. The power dissipated accross the resistance in an
AC circuit.
a. Real power
b. Reactive power
c. Apparent power
d. True power
8. It is the number of complete cycles of alternating
voltage or current complete each second
a. Period
b. Frequency
c. Amplitude
d. Phase

REVIEW QUESTIONS
9. How many degrees are there in one complete cycle?
a. 720 deg
b. 360 deg
c. 180 deg
d. 90 deg
10. The impedance in the study of electronics is
represented by resistance and ___ .
a. Reactance
b. Inductance and capacitance
c. Inductance
d. capacitance

REVIEW QUESTIONS
11. It is the current that is eliminated by a synchro
capacitor?
a. Magnetizing stator
b. Loss
c. Stator
d. Rotor
12. It is a rotaing sector that represent either current
or voltage in an AC circuit.
a. Resistance
b. Phasor
c. Solar diagram
d. velocity

REVIEW QUESTIONS
13. The relationship of the voltage accros an inductor to
its current is described as
a. Leading the current by 90 deg
b. Lagging the current by 90 deg
c. Leading the current by 180 deg
d. In phase with the current
14. Find the phase angle between the voltage across
through the cicuit when Xc is 25ohms, R is 100 ohms
and XL is 50 ohms.
a. 76 deg with the voltage leading the current
b. 24 deg with the voltage lagging the current
c. 14 deg with the voltage lagging the current
d. 76 deg with the voltage lagging the current

REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Calculate the period of an alternating current having
a equation of I=20sin 120t
a. 4.167 ms
b. 8.33 ms
c. 16.67 ms
d. 33.33 ms
16. What do you mean by root-mean-square (rms) value?
a. It is the average value
b. It is the effective value
c. It is the value that causes the same heating effect
as the DC voltage
d. b or c

REVIEW QUESTIONS
17. The maximum instances value of a vrying current,
voltage or power equal to 1.414 times the effective
value of a sine wave.
a. RMS value
b. Peak value
c. Effective value
d. Peak to Peak value
18. If an AC signal has a peak voltage of 55V, what is the
average value?
a. 34.98 V
b. 61.05V
c. 86.34 V
d. 38.89 V

REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. If an AC signal has an average voltage of 18V, what is
the rms voltage?
a. 12.726 V
b. 19.980 V
c. 25.380 V
d. 16.213 V
20. A 220-V, 60Hz is driving a series RL circuit. Determine
the current if R=100 ohms and 20 mH inductance
a. 2.2 A (lagging)
b. 2.0 A (lagging)
c. 2.2 A (leading)
d. 2.0 A (leading)

REVIEW QUESTIONS
21. Ignoring any inductive effects, what is the impedance
of RC series capacitor made up of a 56K ohm resistor
and a 0.33uF capacitor at a signal frequency of 4650 Hz.
a. 66730 ohms
b. 57019 ohms
c. 45270 ohms
d. 10730 ohms
22.What is the time constant of a 500mH coil and a 3300
ohm resistor in series?
a. 0.00015 sec
b. 6.6 sec
c. 0.0015 sec
d. 0.0000015 sec

REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. What is the realtionship between frequency and the
value of XC ?
a. Frequency has no effect
b. XC varies inversely with frequency
c. XC varies indirectly with frequency
d. XC varies directly with frequency
24. The reactance of a 25mH coil at 5000Hz which of the
following?
a. 785 ohms
b. 785000 ohms
c. 13 ohms
d. 0.0012 ohms

REVIEW QUESTIONS
25. There are no transients in pure resistive
circuites becaus they
a. Offer high resistance
b. Obey ohms Law
c. Are linear circuits
d. Have no stored energy
26. The reciprocal of capacitance is called
a. Elastance
b. Conductance
c. Permitivity
d. permeability

REVIEW QUESTIONS
27. The AC system is prefered over DC system because
a. Ac voltages can easily changed in amgnitude
b. Dc motors do not have fine speed control
c. High voltage AC transmission is less efficient
d. DC voltage cannot be used for domestic aplliences
28. An altenating voltage is given by v = 20 sin 157 t.
The frequency of the alternating voltage is
a. 50 Hz
b. 25 HZ
c. 100 Hz
d. 75 Hz

REVIEW QUESTIONS
29. An alternating current given by i = 10 sin 314 t. The time
taken to generate two cycles of current is
a. 20 ms
b. 10 ms
c. 40 ms
d. 50 ms
30. In a pure resistive circuit, the instantaneous voltage and are
current are given by:
v=250 sin 314t
i=10sin314t
The peak power in the circuit is
a.1250 W
b. 25 W
c. 2500 W
d. 250 w

REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. An average value of 6.63 A is _____ the effective value
of 7.07 A.
a. The same area
b. Less than
c. Greater than
d. Any of these
32. In an R-L series circuit, the resistance is 10 ohms and
the inductive reactance is 10 ohms. The phase angle
between the applied voltage and circuit current will be
a. 45 deg
b. 30 deg
c. 60 deg
d. 36.8 deg

REVIEW QUESTIONS
33.An R-L series ac circuit has 15V across the resistor
and 20V across the inductor. The supply volatge is
a. 35 V
b. 5 V
c. 25 V
d. 175 V
34. The active and reactive powers of an inductive circuit
are equal. The power factor of the circuit is
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.707 lagging
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.5 lagging

REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. A circuit when connected to 200V mains takes a current of
20 A, leading the voltage by one-twelfth of time period. The
circuit resistance is
a. 10 ohms
b. 8.66 ohms
c. 20 ohms
d. 17.32 ohms
36. An AC circuit has a resistance of 6 ohms, inductive
reactance of 20 ohms, and capacitive reactance of 12
ohms. The circuit power will be
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.8 leading
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.6 leading

REVIEW QUESTIONS
37. An alternating voltage of 80 + j60 V is applied to a
circuit and the current flowing is -40 + j10 A. Find the
phase angle.
a. 25 deg
b. 50 deg
c. 75 deg
d. 100 deg
38. A current wave is represented by the equation i = 10
sin 251t. The average and RMS value of current are
a. 7.07 A; 6.63A
b. 6.36A; 7.07A
c. 10A; 7.07A
d. 6.36A; 10A

REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Calculate the susceptance in mho of a circuit consisting of
resistor of 10 ohms in series with a conductor of 0.1H, when
the frequency is 50Hz.
a. 0.0303
b. 0.0092
c. -0.029
d. 32.95
40. An inductive circuit of resistance 16.5 ohms and inductive
of 0.14H takes a current of 25 A. If the frequency is 50Hz,
the supply voltage is
a. 117.4 V
b. 1174 V
c. 1714 V
d. 1471 V

REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. The current taken by a circuit is 1.2 A when the
applied potential difference is 250 V and the power
taken is 135W. The power factor is
a. 0.35
b. 0.45
c. 0.55
d. 0.65
42. A capacitor has a capacitance of 20uF. The current
supplied if it is placed across a 1100 V, 25 Hz supply.
a. 3.554 A
b. 6.91 A
c. 3.45 A
d. 9.61 A

REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. A non-inductive load takes a 100A at 100V. Calculate the
inductance of the inductor to be connected in series in order
that the same current is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz mains.
a. 1.96 ohms
b. 6.91 ohms
c. 19.6 ohms
d. 9.61 ohms
44. An inductor having negligible resistance and an inductance of
0.07H is connected in series with a resiostor of 20 ohms
resitance across a 200, 50 Hz supply. The maximum energy
stored in the coil is
a. 3.175 J
b. 1.585 J
c. 0.236 J
d. 0.33 J

REVIEW QUESTIONS
45. A coil has 1200 turns and procedures 100 uWb mwhen
the current flowing is 1A. The inductance of the coil is
a. 0.21 H
b. 0.12 H
c. 0.31 H
d. 0.41 H
46. A capacitor connected to a 115 V, 25 Hz supply takes
5 A. What current will it take when the capacitance and
frequency are doubled?
a. 2 A
b. 5 S
c. 10 A
d. 20 A

REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. A resistor of 20 ohms is connected in parallel with a
capacitor across a 110 V, 40 Hz supply. If the current taken
is 6A, what is the capacitance?
a. 88.6 uF
b. 68.8 uF
c. 86.8 uF
d. 76.8 uF
48. What capacitance must be placed in series with an
inductance of 0.05H, so that when the frequency is 100 Hz,
the impedance becomes equal to the ohmic resitance?
a. 70.5 uF
b. 50.7 uF
c. 5.7 uF
d. 7.05 uF

REVIEW QUESTIONS
49. A reactance of 20 ohms and inductance of 0.1 H is connected
in parallel with a capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor
required to produce a resonance when connected to a 100V,
50 Hz is
a. 71.2 uF
b. 1.277 uF
c. 17.2 uF
d. 72.1 uF
50. What is the resonant frequency of a circuit when an
inductance of 1uH and capacitance of 10 picofarad are in
series?
a. 15.9 MHz
b. 50.3 MHz
c. 15.9 kHz
d. 50.3 KHz

REVIEW QUESTIONS
51. The _____ the Q of a circuit, the narrower the
bandwidth.
a. Lower
b. Higher
c. Broader
d. Selective
52. Find the half power bandwidth of a parallel resonant
circuit which has a resonant frequency of 3.6MHz and Q
of 218.
a. 606 kHz
b. 58.7 kHz
c. 16.5 kHz
d. 47.3 kHz

REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. At series resonance _____ .
a. Circuit impedance is very large
b. Cicuit power factor is minimum
c. Voltage across L or C is zero
d. Circuit power factor is unity
54. At series resonance, the voltage across the
inductor is
a. Equal to the applied voltage
b. Much more than the apllied voltage
c. Equal to voltage across R
d. Less than the applied voltage

REVIEW QUESTIONS
55. The Q factor of the coil is _____ the resistance of the
coil.
a. Inversely proportional to
b. Directly proportional to
c. Independent of
d. None of these
56. An RLC circuit is connected is connected to 200V AC
source. If Q factor of the coil is 10, then the voltage
across the capacitor at resonance is
a. 200 V
b. 2000 V
c. 20 V
d. 210 V

REVIEW QUESTIONS
57. At parallel resonance
a. Circuit impedance is minimum
b. Power factor is zero
c. Line current is maximum
d. Power factor is unity
58. The dynamic impedance of parallel resonant circuit is
1 Mohms. If the capacitance is 1uF, and the resistance
is 1ohm, then the value of the inductance
a. 1 H
b. 10 H
c. 10 pH
d. 10 uH

REVIEW QUESTIONS
59. When supply frequency is less than the resonant
frequency in a parallel ac circuit, then the circuit is
a. Resistive
b. Capacitive
c. Inductive
d. None of these
60. At parallel resonance, the circuit drwas a current of
2mA. If the Q of the circuit is 100, then the current
through the capacitor is
a. 2 mA
b. 1 mA
c. 200 mA
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
61. A circuit has an impedance of (1-j2) ohms. The
susceptance of the circuit in mho is
a. 0.1
b. 0.2
c. 0.4
d. None of these
62. If the admittance of a parallel ac circuit increased,
the circuit current
a. Remains constant
b. Is increased
c. Is decreased
d. None of these

REVIEW QUESTIONS
63. The resistance between any pair two terminals of a
balanced wye-connected load is 12 ohms.
a. 6 ohms
b. 18 ohms
c. 24 ohms
d. None of these
64. If an AC circuit contains three nodes, the number of
each mesh equations that can be formulated is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4

REVIEW QUESTIONS
65. The relation of the voltage across
an inductor to its current is describe
as
a. Leading the current by 90 deg
b. Lagging the current by 90 deg
c. Leading the current by 180 deg
d. In phase with the current

THANk YOU