NS 101

EARTH SCIENCE
NS 101
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)
MISSION
The
University
of
Batangas
provides quality education by
promoting
personal
and
professional growth and enabling
the person to participate in a global,
technology, and research driven
environment
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY
VISION
We envision the University of
Batangas to be a center of excellence
committed to serve the broader
community through quality education

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PHILOSOPHY
The University of Batangas , a stock,
non -sectarian, private educational
institution believes in the pursuit of
knowledge,
values
and
skills
necessary for the preservation and
improvement of the Philippine
society.
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It has faith in the dignity of human

person, in demographic process, in
reward for individual excellence, and in
freedom of a person to worship God
according to his conscience.

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Thus, the institution believes that the

development of the individual as a
person and worker is an effective
means in building a better family,
community, and nation, and a better
world.

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Objectives
The University of Batangas aims to:
Pursue academic excellence through a
continuing search for and application of
truth, knowledge and wisdom via
traditional and alternative modes of
instructional delivery

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Promote moral and spiritual development

through an integrated education process
that will enhance human character and
dignity

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Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

conscience through an educational
content relevant to national development
needs, conditions and aspirations;

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Strengthen involvement in community

services through varied economic projects
and extensive research

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Attain institutional self-reliance through

responsive programs for staff, facilitates
and systems development; and

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Ensure financial viability and profitability

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EARTH SCIENCE
Refers to all the sciences that collectively
seek to understand earth and its
neighbors in space
It involves the understanding of the
several branches of physical sciences
such as geology, meteorology and
astrononomy
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GEOLOGY
From the Greek word Greeky, g,
earth and , logos, study) is the
science that comprises the study of the
solid Earth and processes by which it is
shaped and changed
Provides a primary evidence for plate
tectonics, the history of life and evolution
and past climates
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AREAS OF GEOLOGY
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
Investigates the materials composing the
Earth and seeks to understand the many
processes that operate beneath and upon its
surface

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AREAS OF GEOLOGY
HISTORICAL GEOLOGY seeks to
understand the origin of the Earth and the
development of the planet.
It aims to establish an orderly chronological
arrangement of the multitude of physical
and biological changes that have occurred
in the geologic past.

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The study of PHYSICAL GEOLOGY

logically precedes the study of EARTHS
HISTORY because we must first
understand how the Earth works before
we attempt to unravel its past

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IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING
GEOLOGY
Commercially important for mineral and
hydrocarbon exploration
Evaluating water sources
Publicly important for the prediction and
understanding of natural hazards
Important for the remediation of environmental
problems
For providing insights into past climate change
Plays an essential role in geotechnical engineering
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HISTORY
ANCIENT GREECE
THEOPHRASTUS (372 287 BC)
Wrote the PeriLithon (On Stones)
ROMAN PERIOD
PLINY THE ELDER
Wrote in detail, the many minerals and metals then
in practical use, and correctly noted the origin of
amber
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HISTORY
MODERN SCHOLARS
FIELDING H. GARRISON
believes that modern geology began in the
medieval Islamic world Abu al Rayhan al
Biruni (973 1048 AD) was one of the earliest
geology of India, hypothesizing that the Indian sub
continent was once a sea

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HISTORY
IbnSina (Avicenna, 981-1037)
Proposed detailes explanations for the
formation of mountains, the origin of
earthquakes, and other topics central to
modern Geology, which provided an essential
foundation for the later development of
science.

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HISTORY
ShenKua (1031-1095), China, a polymath
Formulated a hypothesis for the process of
land formation
Based on his observation of fossil animal
shells in a geological stratum in mountain
hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred
that the land was formed by erosion of the
mountains and by deposition of silt
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HISTORY
NICOLAS STENO (1638-1686)
is credited with:
1. the law of superposition
- an axiom that forms one of the bases of the
sciences of geology, archeology, and other fields
dealing with geological stratigraphy.
- it states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences,
the oldest strata will be at the bottom of the
sequence

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2. the principle of original horizontally

- states that layers of sediment are originally
deposited horizontally under the action of
gravity.
- It is a relative dating technique.
- The principle is important to the analysis of
folded and tilted strata.

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3. the principle of lateral continuity

- states that layers of sediment initially extend
laterally in all directions; in other words, they
are laterally continuous.

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Schematic representation of the principle of

lateral continuity
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HISTORY
JEAN ANDRE DELUC first used that word
geology in 1778.
HORACE BENEDICT DE SAUSSURE
introduced geology as a fixed term
WILLIAM SMITH (1769-1839) drew some of
the first geological maps and began the process
of ordering rock strata (layers) by examining the
fossils contained in them.
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HISTORY
JAMES HUTTON is often viewed as the first modern
geologist.
Presented a paper entitled, Theory of the Earth in 1785, to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh
He explained that the Earth must be much older than had
previously been supposed in order to allow enough time
for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new
rocks at the bottom of the seas, which in turn were raised
uo to become dry land.
He published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795.
Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because
they believed that some rocks had settled out a large
ocean whose level gradually dropped over time.
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HISTORY
SIR CHARLES LYELL first published
his famous book, Principles of Geology,
in 1830.
this book influenced the thought of Charles
Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine
of uniformitarianism

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Doctrine of Uniformitarianism
- This theory states that slow geological
processes have occurred throughout the Earths
history and are still occurring today.
* This theory was not totally accepted at that time it
was presented by Hutton

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*Catastrophism is the theory that Earths

features formed in single, catastrophic
events and remained unchanged
thereafter.

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HISTORY
19TH CENTURY
geology revolves around the question of the
Earths exact age
estimates varied from 100,000 to billions of
years

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HISTORY
20TH CENTURY
Radiometric dating allowed the Earths age to
be estimated at two billion years
This opened doors to new theories about the
processes that shaped the planet

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HISTORY
Theory of Plate Tectonics (1960)

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HISTORY
THE PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
- Revolutionized the Earth Science
- (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the
Greek: "pertaining to
building") is a scientific theory that
describes the large-scale motion of
Earths lithosphere.
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- This theoretical model builds on the

concept of continental drift which was
developed during the first few decades of
the 20th century.
- The geoscientific community accepted the
theory after the concepts of seafloor
spreading were later developed in the late
1950s and early 1960s.
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The Earth is known to be

approximately 4.5 billion
years old

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ASSIGNMENT #1
1. What is the Clock of Eras?Illustrate the
Modern Clock of Eras.
2. What is the Geologic Time Scale?
Illustrate.
3. What is Relative Dating?
4. What is Absolute Dating?

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5. Read on the following:

- The principle of intrusive relationships
- The principle of cross cutting relationships
- The principle of inclusions and components
- The principle of uniformitarianism
- The principle of original horizontality
- The principle of superposition
- The principle of faunal succession
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Write your answers in your notebook.

There will be a Graded Recitation next
meeting

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

GEOLOGIC TIME
A graphic aid to help us visualize geologic time.
Uses analogy of a circular clock to represent the
development of our planet in geologic time.
The clock represents geologic time on the Earth
since its birth to the present, from the initial
events that brought about the formation up to
now.

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

GEOLOGIC TIME
A concept that was developed in Montessori
Education where the colors as used in the
Montessori clock relate to the life that was
present during the time.
PALEOZOIC ERA blue, because life was
primarily in the seas
MESOZOIC ERA brown, because life moved to
the land
CENOZOIC ERA green, because of the fresh
new life: the mammals
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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

GEOLOGIC TIME

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

GEOLOGIC TIME
Provides a system of chronologic measurement relating
stratigraphy to time that is used by geologists,
paleontologists and other earth scientists to describe the
timing and relationships between events that have
occurred during the history of the Earth.
Geological Time put in a diagram called a geological
clock, showing the relative lengths of eras of the Earths
history

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

GEOLOGIC TIME
It subdivides the 4.5 billion year history
of the Earth into many different units and
provides a meaningful time frame within
which the events of the geologic past are
arranged.

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GEOLOGIC
TIME SCALE

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RELATIVE DATING
First emerged as a
formal science
Cross cutting
relations can be
used to determine
the relative ages of
rock strata and other
geological
structures.

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RELATIVE DATING
is the science of determining the relative order of
past events (i.e., the age of an object in
comparison to another), without necessarily
determining their absolute age, (i.e. estimated
age).
In geology rock or superficial deposits, fossils
and lithologies can be used to correlate one
stratigraphic column with another.

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RELATIVE DATING
Though relative dating can only determine
the sequential order in which a series of events
occurred, not when they occur, it remains a
useful technique especially in materials lacking
radioactive isotopes.
Relative dating by biostratigraphy is the
preferred method in paleontology, and is in
some respects more accurate (Stanley, 167
69).
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RELATIVE DATING

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ABSOLUTE DATING
The process of determining an age on a
specified time scale in archaeology and geology.
Some scientists prefer the
terms chronometric or calendar dating, as use of
the word "absolute" implies an unwarranted
certainty and precision.
provides a numerical age or range in contrast
with relative dating which places events in order
without any measure of the age between events.
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ABSOLUTE DATING
In archeology, absolute dating is usually based on the
physical, chemical, and life properties of the materials of
artifacts, buildings, or other items that have been modified
by humans and by historical associations with materials
with known dates (coins and written history).
Techniques include tree rings in timbers, radiocarbon dating
of wood or bones, and trapped charge dating methods
such asthermoluminescence dating of glazed ceramics.
Coins found in excavations may have their production date
written on them, or there may be written records describing
the coin and when it was used, allowing the site to be
associated with a particular calendar year.

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ABSOLUTE DATING
In geology, the primary methods of absolute
dating involve using the radioactive decay of
elements trapped in rocks or minerals, including
isotope systems from very young (radiocarbon
dating with 14C) to systems such as
uranium-lead dating that allow acquisition of
absolute ages for some of the oldest rocks on
earth.

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ABSOLUTE DATING

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The Principle of Intrusive

Relationships
concerns crosscutting intrusions.
In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be
determined that the igneous intrusion is younger
than the sedimentary rock.
There are a number of different types of
intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths,
batholiths, sills and dikes.
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The Principle of Cross-cutting

Relationships
pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the
sequences through which they cut.
Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if
a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not
those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are
older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must
be younger than the fault.
Finding the key bed in these situations may help
determine whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust
fault.

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The Principle of Inclusions and

Components
states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or clasts)
are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older
than the formation that contains them.
For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel
from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a
newer layer.
A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when
xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as
magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in
the matrix.
As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which
contains them.

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The Principle of Uniformitarianism

states that the geologic processes observed in
operation that modify the Earth's crust at present
have worked in much the same way over
geologic time.
A fundamental principle of geology advanced by
the 18th century Scottish physician and
geologist James Hutton, is that "the present is
the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past
history of our globe must be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now."

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The Principle of Original

Horizontality
states that the deposition of sediments
occurs as essentially horizontal beds.
Observation of modern marine and nonmarine sediments in a wide variety of
environments supports this generalization
(although cross-bedding is inclined, the
overall orientation of cross-bedded units is
horizontal).
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The Principle of Superposition

states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically
undisturbed sequence is younger than the one
beneath it and older than the one above it.
Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer
previously deposited.
This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed
as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete
record of the time elapsed from deposition of the
lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.

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The Principle of Faunal Succession

is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks.
As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the
world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to
provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found.
Based on principles laid out by William Smith almost a hundred
years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution, the principles of succession were developed
independently of evolutionary thought.
The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the
uncertainties of fossilization (Paleontology), the localization of
fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in
sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found
globally at the same time.

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METHODS OF GEOLOGY
Petrology (from the Greek , petra,
"rock" and , logos, "study") is the
branch of geology that studies the origin,
composition, distribution and structure of
rocks.

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METHODS OF GEOLOGY
Stratigraphy-the study of sedimentary
layers), and
structural geology-the study of positions of
rock units and their deformation

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Field Methods
Geological mapping
Structural mapping: the locations of major rock units
and the faults and folds that led to their placement
there.
Stratigraphic mapping: the locations of sedimentary
facies (lithofacies and biofacies) or the mapping of
isopachs of equal thickness of sedimentary rock
Surficial mapping: the locations of soils and surficial
deposits

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Field Methods
Surveying of topographic features
Creation of topographic maps
Work to understand change across
landscapes, including:
Patterns of erosion and deposition
River channel change through migration and
avulsion
Hill slope processes

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Subsurface mapping through

geophysical methods
These methods include:
Shallow seismic surveys
Ground-penetrating radar
Aeromagnetic surveys
Electrical resistivity tomography
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They are used for:

Hydrocarbon exploration
Finding groundwater
Locating buried archaeological artifacts

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High-resolution stratigraphy
Measuring and describing stratigraphic
sections on the surface
Well drilling and logging

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Biogeochemistry and geomicrobiology

Collecting samples to:
Determine biochemical pathways
Identify new species of organisms
Identify new chemical compounds
And to use these discoveries to:

Understand early life on Earth and how it functioned and
metabolized
Find important compounds for use in pharmaceuticals.

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Paleontology: excavation of fossil material

For research into past life and evolution
For museums and education

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Collection of samples
for geochronology and thermochronology
Glaciology: measurement of
characteristics of glaciers and their motion

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Earth History
The Geologic
Time Scale

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The Age of the Earth
4.6 billion years

old =
4,600,000,000
Image courtesy of NASA, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg#file

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IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THE EARTH FORMED

ALONG WITH THE SOLAR SYSTEM 4.6 BILLION
YEARS AGO (4,600 MYA)
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
A SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR EVENTS IN EARTHS HISTORY
EON largest segment of geologic time
ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH smallest segment of geologic time

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The earths 4.6 billion year history is divided into

major units of time:
Precambrian Time
Paleozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Cenozoic Era

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Precambrian Time
4.6 billion years before present to 544 million
years before present
Longest era with a sparse fossil record
Origin of earths crust, first atmosphere, and
first seas
Earliest fossils of cyanobacteria use
photosynthesis to produce oxygen
Ozone layer in the atmosphere is formed from
oxygen
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Paleozoic era
544 million years before
present to 245 million years

before present
Marine communities flourish
Early fishes develop
Origin of amphibians, insects
& reptiles
Recurring ice ages/
Appalachians mountains form
Spore-bearing plants dominate
Images courtesy of: http://discover.edventures.com/images/termlib/p/paleozoic/support.gif,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilobites

Life Sciences-HHMI Outreach. Copyright 2006 President and Fellows of Harvard
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College.
Paleozoic era
(continued)
286 - 248 million years
before present:
Supercontinent of
Pangea forms
present: MASS
EXTINCTION-90 % of
all known families lost!
Image courtesy of http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/plates/teaching_ideas.htm?PHPSESSID=def1b9

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College.
Mesozoic Era
245 million years before present 65 million years before present
The age of the dinosaurs!
Gymnosperms dominate land
plant/ origin of angiosperms flowering plants
Origin of mammals & birds
145 million years before present asteroid impact? MASS
EXTINCTION
Pangea begins to separate/
Rocky mountains form
Image courtesy of http://nascarulz.tripod.com/dinomain.html

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College.

present.
ASTEROID IMPACT!
Mass extinction of ALL
dinosaurs and many

marine organisms
End of the Mesozoic
era
Image courtesy of NASA: http://www.nasaexplores.com/show2_912a.php?id=01-074&gl=912

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College.
Cenozoic Era
present -today
Present era we live in
Continued evolution and
adaptations of flowering
plants, insects, birds,
mammals
Mammals dominant
Major crustal movements &
mountain building (Alps &
Himalayan mountains form)
Image courtesy of: http://www.karencarr.com/gallery_Cenozoic_arch.html

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College.
And during the Cenozoic

era
The most primitive hominid
(human ancestor) evolves approximately 4.4million
The first modern humans
(homo sapiens) evolved
approximately 100,000
Image courtesy of: http://www.wilderdom.com/images/evolution/8.jpg

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The Structure
of the Earth
and Plate
Tectonics
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Structure of the Earth

Mantle
The Earth is
made up of 3
main layers:
Outer core
Inner core
Core
Mantle
Crust
Crust
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The Crust
This is where we live!
The Earths crust is made
of:
Continental Crust
- thick (10-70km)
- buoyant (less dense
than oceanic crust)
mostly
ABIGAIL -MARIE
UMALIold
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
Oceanic Crust
- thin (~7 km)
- dense (sinks under
continental crust)
- young
How do we know what the Earth

is made of?
Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics,
electrical, geodesy
Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite
Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines

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What is Plate Tectonics?

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If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the
continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.

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Plate Tectonics
The Earths crust is divided into 12 major
plates which are moved in various directions.
This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other.
Each type of interaction causes a characteristic
set of Earth structures or tectonic features.
The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of
the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.
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Plate Tectonics
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Plate Tectonics

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World Plates

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What are tectonic plates made of?

Plates are
made of rigid
lithosphere.
The lithosphere is
made up of the
crust and the upper
part of the mantle.
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What lies beneath the tectonic plates?

Below the
lithosphere
(which makes
up the tectonic
plates) is the
asthenosphere.
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Plate Movement
Plates of lithosphere are moved around by
the underlying hot mantle convection cells

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Practical
Exercise
1
Supercontinents!
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
What happens
at tectonic
plate
boundaries?
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Three types of plate boundary

Divergent
Convergent
Transform
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Divergent Boundaries
Spreading ridges
As plates move apart new material is erupted to
fill the gap

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Age of Oceanic Crust

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Courtesy of www.ngdc.noaa.gov
Iceland: An example of continental rifting

Iceland has a divergent
plate boundary running
through its middle

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Convergent Boundaries
There are three styles of convergent
plate boundaries
Continent-continent collision
Continent-oceanic crust collision
Ocean-ocean collision

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Continent-Continent Collision
Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas

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Himalayas

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Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision

Called SUBDUCTION

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Subduction

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Oceanic lithosphere
subducts underneath the
continental lithosphere
Oceanic lithosphere heats
and dehydrates as it
subsides
The melt rises forming
volcanism
E.g. The Andes
Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision
When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other
which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a
subduction zone.
The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very
deep depression in the ocean floor called a trench.
The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along
trenches.
E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!

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Transform Boundaries
Where plates slide past each other
Above: View of the San Andreas

transform fault
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Practical
Exercise 2
Where will the UK be in:
1,000 years?
1,000,000 years?
1,000,000,000 years?
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Volcanoes and
Plate
Tectonics
whats the connection?
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Pacific Ring of Fire

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Volcanism is
mostly
focused at
plate
margins
Volcanoes are formed by:

- Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots

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Pacific Ring of Fire
Hotspot
volcanoes

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What are Hotspot Volcanoes?

Hot mantle plumes breaching the
surface in the middle of a tectonic plate
The Hawaiian island chain are

examples of hotspot volcanoes.

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Photo: Tom Pfeiffer / www.volcanodiscovery.com
The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot

forming a chain of volcanoes.
The volcanoes get younger from one end to the other.

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Earthquakes
and Plate
Tectonics
whats the connection?
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not

randomly distributed over the globe
Figure showing
the distribution of
earthquakes
around the globe
At the boundaries between plates, friction

causes them to stick together. When built up
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
energy
causes them to break, earthquakes
R.N., M.A.N
occur.
UNIVERSITY OF
BATANGAS LIPA CITY
Where do earthquakes form?
Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

R.N., M.A.N
Plate Tectonics Summary

The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core,
mantle, crust)
On the surface of the Earth are tectonic
plates that slowly move around the globe
Plates are made of crust and upper mantle
(lithosphere)
There are 2 types of plate
There are 3 types of plate boundaries
Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely
linked to the margins of the tectonic plates
R.N., M.A.N

NS 101

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NS 101

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EARTH SCIENCE

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

It has faith in the dignity of human

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Thus, the institution believes that the

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Promote moral and spiritual development

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Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

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Strengthen involvement in community

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Attain institutional self-reliance through

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Ensure financial viability and profitability

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

The study of PHYSICAL GEOLOGY

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

2. the principle of original horizontally

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3. the principle of lateral continuity

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Schematic representation of the principle of

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

*Catastrophism is the theory that Earths

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Theory of Plate Tectonics (1960)

- This theoretical model builds on the

The Earth is known to be

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

5. Read on the following:

Write your answers in your notebook.

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

CLOCK OF ERAS AND

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

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CLOCK OF ERAS AND

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

The Principle of Intrusive

The Principle of Cross-cutting

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