Lecture 1 A

CHEE 434/821
Process Control II
Some Review Material
Winter 2006
Instructor:
M.Guay
TA:
V. Adetola
Introduction
In the chemical industry,
the design of a control system is essential to

ensure:
Good Process Operation
Process Safety
Product Quality
Minimization of Environmental Impact
Introduction
What is the purpose of a control system?

To maintain important process characteristics at
desired targets despite the effects of external
perturbations.
Perturbations
Plant
Processing
objectives
Safety
Make $$$
Environment...
Market
Economy
Climate
Upsets...
Control
Introduction
What constitutes a control system?
Control
Combination of process
sensors, actuators and
computer systems
designed and tuned
to orchestrate
safe and profitable
operation.
Plant
Introduction
Process Dynamics:
Study of the transient behavior of processes
Process Control
the use of process dynamics for the
improvement of process operation and
performance
or
the use of process dynamics to alleviate the
effect of undesirable (unstable) process
behaviors
Introduction
What do we mean by process?
A process, P, is an operation that takes an INPUT or a
DISTURBANCE and gives an OUTPUT
Information Flow
INPUT: (u) Something that you can manipulate
DISTURBANCE: (d) Something that comes as a result of
some outside phenomenon
OUTPUT: (y) An observable quantity that we want to
regulate
Examples
Stirred tank heater
M
Tin, w
T, w
Q
Inputs
Tin
w
Q
Output
Process
Examples
The speed of an automobile
Force of
Engine
Friction
Inputs
Output
Friction
Process
Engine
Speed
Examples
e.g. Landing on Mars
Examples
e.g. Millirobotics
Laparoscopic Manipulators
Introduction
Process
A process, P, is an operation that takes an INPUT or a
DISTURBANCE and gives an OUTPUT
d
Information Flow
INPUT: (u) Something that you can manipulate
DISTURBANCE: (d) Something that comes as a result of
some outside phenomenon
OUTPUT: (y) An observable quantity that we want to
regulate
Control
What is control?
To regulate of a process output despite the effect of

disturbances e.g.
Driving a car
Controlling the temperature of a chemical
reactor
Reducing vibrations in a flexible structure
To stabilize unstable processes e.g.

Riding a bike
Flight of an airplane
Operation of a nuclear plant
Benefits of Control
Economic Benefits
Quality (waste reduction)
Variance reduction (consistency)
Savings in energy, materials, manpower
Operability, safety (stability)

Performance
Efficiency
Accuracy
robotics
Reliability
Stabilizability
bicycle
aircraft
nuclear reactor
Control
What is a controller?
Process
Controller
A controller is a system designed to regulate a given

process
Process typically obeys physical and chemical
conservation laws
Controller obeys laws of mathematics and logic
(sometimes intelligent)
e.g.
- Riding a bike (human controller)
- Driving a car
- Automatic control (computer programmed to
control)
Block representations
Block diagrams are models of the physical systems
Input variables
System Physical
Boundary
Process
Output variables
Transfer of
fundamental
quantities
Physical
Mass, Energy and Momentum

Abstract
Operation
Control
A controlled process is a system which is

comprised of two interacting systems:
e.g. Most controlled systems are feedback controlled

systems
Disturbances
Outputs
Process
Action
intervene
Observation
Controller
monitor
The controller is designed to provide regulation of

process outputs in the presence of disturbances
Introduction
What is required for the development of a
control system?
1. The Plant (e.g. SPP of Nylon)
Nylon
Gas Make-up
Reheater
Relief
Pot
Dehumidifier
Steam
Heater
Blower
Water
Vent
Introduction
What is required?
1. Process Understanding
Required measurements
Required actuators
Understand design limitations
2. Process Instrumentation
Appropriate sensor and actuator selection
Integration in control system
Communication and computer architecture
3. Process Control
Appropriate control strategy
Example
Cruise Control
Friction
Engine
Process
Controller
Human or Computer
Speed
Classical Control
Control is meant to provide regulation of process

outputs about a reference, r, despite inherent
disturbances
d
r +
e
-
Controller
Process
Classical Feedback Control System
The deviation of the plant output, e=(r-y), from its

intended reference is used to make appropriate
adjustments in the plant input, u
Control
Process is a combination of sensors and actuators
Controller is a computer (or operator) that performs

the required manipulations
e.g. Classical feedback control loop
d
r+
Computer
Actuator
e
-
P
Process
M
Sensor
Examples
Driving an automobile
r +
e
-
Driver
Steering
P
Automobile
M
Visual and tactile measurement
Actual trajectory
Desired trajectory
Examples
Stirred-Tank Heater
Tin, w
Heater
Q
TC
T, w
Thermocouple
Tin, w
TR
Controller
Heater
+
-
P
Tank
M
Thermocouple
Examples
Measure T, adjust Q
Tin, w
+
Controller
Heater
TR -
P
Tank
M
Thermocouple
Feedback control
Controller:
Q=K(TR-T)+Qnominal
where
Qnominal=wC(T-Tin)
Q: Is this positive or negative feedback?
Examples
Measure Ti, adjust Q
Ti
M
C
+ Q
Qi
Q
Feedforward Control
Control Nomenclature
Identification of all process variables

Inputs
Outputs
(affect process)
(result of process)
Inputs
Disturbance variables
Variables affecting process that are due to
external forces
Manipulated variables
Things that we can directly affect
Control Nomenclature
Outputs
Measured
speed of a car
Unmeasured
acceleration of a car
Control variables
important observable quantities that we
want to regulate
can be measured or unmeasured
Disturbances
Manipulated
Other
Process
Controller
Control
Example
wi, Ti
L
Pc
wc, Tci
T
wc, Tco
Po
Variables
wi , w o :
Ti, To:
wc:
P c:
Po:
Tci, Tco:
h:
wo, To
T
Tank inlet and outlet mass flows

Tank inlet and outlet temperatures
Cooling jacket mass flow
Position of cooling jacket inlet valve
Position of tank outlet valve
Cooling jacket inlet and outlet
temperatures
Tank liquid level
Example
Variables
Inputs
Disturbances
Outputs
Manipulated Measured Unmeasured Control
wi
Ti
Tci
wc
h
wo
To
Pc
Po
Task: Classify the variables
Process Control and Modeling
In designing a controller, we must

Define control objectives
Develop a process model
Design controller based on model
Test through simulation
Implement to real process
Tune and monitor
d
r
Controller
Process
Model
Design
Implementation
Control System Development

Control development is usually carried out following these
important steps
Define Objectives
Develop a process
model
Design controller
based on model
Test by
Simulation
Implement and Tune
Monitor
Performance
Often an iterative process, based on performance we may
decide to retune, redesign or remodel a given control system
Objectives
What are we trying to control?
Process modeling
What do we need?
Mechanistic and/or empirical
Controller design
How do we use the knowledge of process
behavior to reach our process control
objectives?
What variables should we measure?
What variables should we control?
What are the best manipulated variables?
What is the best controller structure?
Implement and tune the controlled process

Test by simulation
incorporate control strategy to the process
hardware
theory rarely transcends to reality
tune and re-tune
Monitor performance
periodic retuning and redesign is often
necessary based on sensitivity of process or
market demands
statistical methods can be used to monitor
performance
Process Modeling
Motivation:
Develop understanding of process
a mathematical hypothesis of process
mechanisms
Match observed process behavior
useful in design, optimization and control
of process
Control:
Interested in description of process dynamics
Dynamic model is used to predict how
process responds to given input
Tells us how to react
Process Modeling
What kind of model do we need?
Dynamic vs. Steady-state

Steady-state
Variables not a function of time
useful for design calculation
Dynamic
Variables are a function of time
Control requires dynamic model
Process Modeling
What kind of model do we need?
Experimental vs Theoretical
Experimental
Derived from tests performed on actual
process
Simpler model forms
Easier to manipulate
Theoretical
Application of fundamental laws of physics
and chemistry
more complex but provides understanding
Required in design stages
Process Modeling
Dynamic vs. Steady-state

65
60
Steady-State 1
Output
55
Steady-State 2
50
45
40
0
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
Step change in input to observe

Starting at steady-state, we made a step change
The system oscillates and finds a new steadystate
Dynamics describe the transitory behavior
Process Modeling
Empirical vs. Mechanistic models

Empirical Models
only local representation of the process
(no extrapolation)
model only as good as the data
Mechanistic Models
Rely on our understanding of a process
Derived from first principles
Observing laws of conservation of
Mass
Energy
Momentum
Useful for simulation and exploration of
new operating conditions
May contain unknown constants that must
be estimated
Process Modeling
Empirical vs Mechanistic models

Empirical models
do not rely on underlying mechanisms
Fit specific function to match process
Mathematical French curve
1.3
1.2
1.1
Output
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
Process Modeling
Linear vs Nonlinear
Linear
basis for most industrial control
simpler model form, easy to identify
easy to design controller
poor prediction, adequate control
Nonlinear
reality
more complex and difficult to identify
need state-of-the-art controller design
techniques to do the job
better prediction and control
In existing processes, we really on

Dynamic models obtained from experiments
Usually of an empirical nature
Linear
In new applications (or difficult problems)

Focus on mechanistic modeling
Dynamic models derived from theory
Nonlinear
Process Modeling
General modeling procedure

Identify modeling objectives
end use of model (e.g. control)
Identify fundamental quantities of interest
Mass, Energy and/or Momentum
Identify boundaries
Apply fundamental physical and chemical laws
Mass, Energy and/or Momentum balances
Make appropriate assumptions (Simplify)
ideality (e.g. isothermal, adiabatic, ideal gas,
no friction, incompressible flow, etc,)
Write down energy, mass and momentum
balances (develop the model equations)
Process Modeling
Modeling procedure
Check model consistency
do we have more unknowns than equations
Determine unknown constants
e.g. friction coefficients, fluid density and
viscosity
Solve model equations
typically nonlinear ordinary (or partial)
differential equations
initial value problems
Check the validity of the model
compare to process behavior
Process Modeling
For control applications:

Modeling objectives is to describe process
dynamics based on the laws of conservation of
mass, energy and momentum
The balance equation
Rate of Accumulation
of fundamental quantity
Flow
In
+
Flow
Out
Rate of
Production
1. Mass Balance (Stirred tank)

2. Energy Balance (Stirred tank heater)
3. Momentum Balance (Car speed)
Process Modeling
Application of a mass balance

Holding Tank
Fin
h
F
Modeling objective: Control of tank level
Fundamental quantity: Mass
Assumptions: Incompressible flow
Process Modeling
Total mass in system = V = Ah
Flow in = Fin
Flow out = F
Total mass at time t = Ah(t)
Total mass at time t+t = Ah(tt
Accumulation
Ah(ttAh(t) = t(Fin-F ),
A h ( t t ) A h ( t )
( F in F ) ,
t
lim
t 0
A h ( t t ) A h ( t )
( F in F ) ,
t
dh
( F in F ) .
dt
Process Modeling
Model consistency
Can we solve this equation?
Variables: h, , Fin, F, A
Constants: , A
Inputs: Fin, F
Unknowns: h
Equations 1
Degrees of freedom
There exists a solution for each value of the

inputs Fin, F
Process Modeling
Solve equation
Specify initial conditions h(0)=h0 and integrate
h (t) h (0)
t
0
F in ( ) F (
2
Fin
fow
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
Process Modeling
Energy balance
M
Tin, w
T, w
Q
Objective:
Control tank temperature
Fundamental quantity: Energy
Assumptions: Incompressible flow
Constant hold-up
Process Modeling
Under constant hold-up and constant mean

pressure (small pressure changes)
Balance equation can be written in terms of the
enthalpies of the various streams
dH
H i n H
dt
out
Q W
Typically work done on system by external

forces is negligible
dH
H i n H
dt
out
Assume that the heat capacities are constant

such that
H C P V ( T T ref )
H i n C P w ( T i n T r e f )
H o u t C P w ( T T r e f )
Process Modeling
After substitution,
d ( C PV ( T T ref ) )
dt
C P w ( T in T r e f ) C P w ( T T r e f ) Q
Since Tref is fixed and we assume constant

,Cp
C PV
d ( T T ref )
C P w ( T in T r e f ) C P w ( T T r e f ) Q
dt
Divide by CpV
dT w
Q
( T in T )
dt V
C PV
Process Modeling
Resulting equation:
dT
F
Q
( T in T )
dt V
V C
Model Consistency
Variables: T, F, V, Tin, Q, Cp,
Constants: V, Cp,
Inputs: F, Tin, Q
Unknown: T 1
Equations
There exists a unique solution
Process Modeling
Assume F is fixed
T (t) T (0)e
t /
e ( t ) / ( T in ( ) Q ( )
)d
C
V
p
0
where V/F is the tank residence time (or time

constant)
If F changes with time then the differential
equation does not have a closed form
solution.
d T (t) F (t)
Q (t)
( T in ( t ) T ( t ) )
dt
V
V C P
Product F(t)T(t) makes this differential
equation nonlinear.
Solution will need numerical integration.
Process Modeling
A simple momentum balance
Rate of
Accumulation
Momentum
In
Momentum
Out
Sum of forces
acting on system
Speed (v)
Friction
Force of
Engine (u)
Objective:
Control car speed
Quantity:
Momentum
Quantity
Assumption:
Assumption Friction proportional to speed
Process Modeling
Forces are: Force of the engine = u
Friction = bv
Balance:
Total momentum = Mv
d ( M v (t))
d v (t)
M
u (t) b v (t)
dt
dt
Model consistency
Variables:
Constants:
Inputs: u
Unknowns
M, v, b, u
M, b 2
1
v
1
Process Modeling
Gravity tank
Fo
Objectives: height of liquid in tank L

Fundamental quantity: Mass, momentum
Assumptions:
Outlet flow is driven by head of liquid in the
tank
Incompressible flow
Plug flow in outlet pipe
Turbulent flow
Process Modeling
From mass and momentum balances,
dh Fo A P v
dt
A
A
dv hg K F v2
dt
L
A P
A system of simultaneous ordinary
differential equations results
Linear or nonlinear?
Process Modeling
Model consistency
Variables
Fo, A, Ap, v, h, g, L, KF,
Constants
A, Ap, g, L, KF,
Inputs
Fo
Unknowns
h, v
Equations
Model is consistent
Solution of ODEs
Mechanistic modeling results in nonlinear

sets of ordinary differential equations
Solution requires numerical integration
To get solution, we must first:

specify all constants (densities, heat capacities,
etc, )
specify all initial conditions
specify types of perturbations of the input
variables
For the heated stirred tank,
dT
F
Q
( T in T )
t CP,V and V
V C
specifyd
specify T(0)
specify Q(t) and F(t)
Input Specifications
Study of control system dynamics

Observe the time response of a process
output in response to input changes
Focus on specific inputs

1. Step input signals
2. Ramp input signals
3. Pulse and impulse signals
4. Sinusoidal signals
5. Random (noisy) signals
Common Input Signals

1. Step Input Signal: a sustained
instantaneous change
e.g. Unit step input introduced at time 1
1.5
Input
0.5
5
Time
10
10
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

2. Ramp Input: A sustained constant rate of
change
e.g.
9
8
7
Input
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5
Time
10
8
7
6
Output
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
5
Time
10

3. Pulse: An instantaneous temporary change
e.g. Fast pulse (unit impulse)
100
90
80
70
Input
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5
Time
10
5
Time
10
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Output
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05

3. Pulses:
e.g. Rectangular Pulse
1.5
Input
0.5
5
Time
10
5
Time
10
1.2
1
Output
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2

4. Sinusoidal input
1.5
Input
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
15
Time
20
25
30
10
15
Time
20
25
30
0.8
0.6
0.4
Output
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

5. Random Input
1.5
Input
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
15
Time
20
25
30
0.6
0.4
Output
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
10
15
Time
20
25
30
Solution of ODEs using Laplace

Transforms
Process Dynamics and Control
Linear ODEs
For linear ODEs, we can solve without

integrating by using Laplace transforms
F ( s ) [ f ( t )] f ( t ) e
st
t0
Integrate out time and transform to

Laplace domain
d y (t)
a y (t) b u (t)
dt
y ( 0 ) c
Integration
Multiplication
Y(s) = G(s)U(s)
dt
Common Transforms
Useful Laplace Transforms
1. Exponential
f (t) e bt
[ e
bt
] e
bt st
[ e
bt
d t e (sb )td t
0
(sb )t
sb
sb
2. Cosine
e j t e j t
f ( t ) c o s ( t )
2
1 ( s j ) t
( s j ) t
[c o s ( t )] e
dt e
dt
2 0
0
1
1
1
s

2
2 s j s j
s 2
Common Transforms
Useful Laplace Transforms
3. Sine
e j t e j t
f ( t ) s in ( t )
2 j
1 ( s j ) t
( s j ) t
[s in ( t )]
dt e
dt
e
2 j 0
0
1
1
1
2
2 j s j s j
s 2
Common Transforms
Operators
1. Derivative of a function f(t)
df (t)
dt
du df
v
st
df
[ ] u v
dt
u d v f (t)e
0
df
[ ] s f ( t ) e
dt
0
st
st
0
( sf (t)e
st
)d t
d t f (0) sF (s) f (0)
2. Integral of a function f(t)

t
f ( )d
0
st
F (s)
( f ( )d )d t
s
0
Common Transforms
Operators
3. Delayed function f(t-)
g (t)
f (t )
g ( t ) e
0
st
t
t
(0 )d t e st f (t )d t
g ( t ) e s F ( s )
Common Transforms
Input Signals
1. Constant
[ a ] a e
f (t) a
st
st
a
e
dt (
[ f ( t )] a e
st
st
a
e
dt (
f ( t )
a te
0
st
dt
st
) 0 a
t 0
t 0
0
3. Ramp function f ( t )
at
t 0
t 0
0
f (t)
a
2. Step
) 0 a
at
ae
st
dt
a
s2
Common Transforms
Input Signals
4. Rectangular Pulse
0
f (t) a
0
t 0
0 t tw
t tw
tw
a
f ( t ) a e st d t (1 e tw s )
s
0
5. Unit impulse
( t ) l i m
tw 0 tw
(1 e tw s )
se tw s
( t ) l i m
1
s
tw 0
Laplace Transforms
Final Value Theorem
lim
y (t)
lim s Y ( s )
s 0
Limitations:
y (t) C 1,
lim s Y ( s ) e x is ts s R e ( s ) 0
s 0
Initial Value Theorem

y ( 0 ) lim
sY
(s)
Solution of ODEs
We can continue taking Laplace transforms
and generate a catalogue of Laplace
domain functions. See SEM Table 3.1
The final aim is the solution of ordinary
differential equations.
Example
Using Laplace Transform, solve
dy
5
4 y 2 ,
dt
y (0) 1
Result
y ( t ) 0 .5 0 .5 e 0 .8 t
Solution of Linear ODEs

Stirred-tank heater (with constant F)
dT
F
Q
( T in T )
dt V
V C P
T (0) T0
taking Laplace
V dT
1
T in ( t ) T ( t )
Q ( t )
F d t
FC P
( T ( s ) T ( 0 ) ) T in ( s ) T ( s ) K P Q ( s )
1
K P
T (s)
T (0)
T in ( s )
Q (s)
s 1
s 1
s 1
To get back to time domain, we must

Specify Laplace domain functions Q(s), Tin(s)
Take Inverse Laplace
Linear ODEs
Notes:
The expression
T (s)
1
K P
T (0)
T in ( s )
Q (s)
s 1
s 1
s 1
describes the dynamic behavior of the process

explicitly
The Laplace domain functions multiplying
T(0), Tin(s) and Q(s) are transfer functions
Tin(s)
Q(s)
T(0)
1
s 1
K P
s 1
s 1
+
+
T(s)
Laplace Transform
Assume Tin(t) = sin(t) then the transfer
function gives directly
1
T in ( s ) 2
s 1
( s 2 )(s 1 )
Cannot invert explicitly, but if we can find A
and B such that
B
2
2
2
s 1 ( s 2 )(s 1 )
s
A
we can invert using tables.

Need Partial Fraction Expansion to deal with
such functions
Linear ODEs
We deal with rational functions of the form
r(s)=p(s)/q(s) where degree of q > degree
of p
q(s) is called the characteristic polynomial of
the function r(s)
Theorem:
Every polynomial q(s) with real
coefficients can be factored into the
product of only two types of factors
powers of linear terms (x-a)n and/or
powers of irreducible quadratic terms,
(x2+bx+c)m
Partial fraction Expansions

1. q(s) has real and distinct factors
n
q (s) (s bi)
i1
expand as
i
r(s)
i1s bi
n
2. q(s) has real but repeated factor

q (s) (s b )n
expanded
1
2
n
r(s)

2
s b (s b)
(s b)n
Partial Fraction Expansion

Heaviside expansion
For a rational function of the form
n
p (s)
p (s)
i
r(s)
n

q (s)
(s bi)
i
1
(s bi )
i1
Constants are given by

p (s)
i (s bi)
q ( s ) s b
i
Note: Most applicable to q(s) with real and
distinct roots. It can be applied to more
specific cases.
Partial Fraction Expansions

3. Q(s) has irreducible quadratic factors of the
form
q (s) (s2 d1s d 0 )n
where d 2
d0
4
Algorithm for Solution of ODEs
Take Laplace Transform of both sides of ODE
Solve for Y(s)=p(s)/q(s)
Factor the characteristic polynomial q(s)
Perform partial fraction expansion
Inverse Laplace using Tables of Laplace
Transforms
Transfer Function Models

of Dynamical Processe
Transfer Function
Heated stirred tank example
1
K P
T (s)
T (0)
T in ( s )
Q (s)
s 1
s 1
s 1
Tin(s)
Q(s)
T(0)
e.g. The block
1
s 1
K P
s 1
s 1
K P
s 1
T(s)
is called the transfer function relating Q(s)

to T(s)
Process Control
Time Domain
Laplace Domain
Process Modeling,
Experimentation and
Implementation
Transfer function
Modeling, Controller
Design and Analysis
Ability to understand dynamics in Laplace and

time domains is extremely important in the
study of process control
Transfer function
Order of underlying ODE is given by degree
of characteristic polynomial
e.g. First order processes
K P
Y (s)
U (s)
s 1
Second order processes
K P
Y (s) 2 2
U (s)
s 2 s 1
Steady-state value obtained directly

e.g. First order response to unit step function
Y (s)
Final value theorem
s (s 1 )
lim s Y ( s ) lim G ( s ) K
s 0
s 0
Transfer functions are additive and

multiplicative
Transfer function
Effect of many transfer functions on a

variable is additive
1
K P
T (s)
T (0)
T in ( s )
Q (s)
s 1
s 1
s 1
Tin(s)
Q(s)
T(0)
1
s 1
K P
s 1
s 1
+
+
T(s)
Transfer Function
Effect of consecutive processes in series in

multiplicative
U(s)
K P
s 1
Y1(s)
K P
s 1
Transfer Function
K P
U (s)
s 1
K P
Y 2(s)
Y1 ( s )
s 1
K P K P
Y1 ( s )

U (s)
s 1 s 1
Y1 ( s )
Y2(s)
Deviation Variables
To remove dependence on initial condition
e.g.
1
K P
T (s)
T (0)
T in ( s )
Q (s)
s 1
s 1
s 1
Remove dependency on T(0)

1
K P
T ( s )
T i n ( s )
Q ( s )
s 1
s 1
Transfer functions express extent of deviation

from a given steady-state
Procedure
Find steady-state
Write steady-state equation
Subtract from linear ODE
Define deviation variables and their derivatives if
required
Substitute to re-express ODE in terms of deviation
variables
Example
Jacketed heated stirred tank

F, Tin
Fc, Tcin
Fc, Tc
F, T
Assumptions:
Assumptions
Constant hold-up in tank and jacket
Constant heat capacities and densities
Incompressible flow
Model
dT
F
hc Ac
( T in T )
(Tc T )
dt V
C PV
d Tc Fc
hc Ac
( T c in T c )
(Tc T )
dt
Vc
c C P cV c
Nonlinear ODEs
Q: If the model of the process is nonlinear,
how do we express it in terms of a transfer
function?
A: We have to approximate it by a linear one
(i.e.Linearize) in order to take the Laplace.
f(x)
f
(x0)
x
f(x0)
x0
x
Nonlinear systems
First order Taylor series expansion
1. Function of one variable

f (x) f (xs)
f (xs)
(x xs)
x
2. Function of two variables
f (x ,u ) f (xs ,u s )
f ( x s ,u s )
f ( x s ,u s )
(x xs)
(u us )
x
u
3. ODEs
x f ( x ) f ( x s )
f (xs)
(x xs)
x
Transfer function
Procedure to obtain transfer function from

nonlinear process models
Find steady-state of process
Linearize about the steady-state
Express in terms of deviations variables about
the steady-state
Take Laplace transform
Isolate outputs in Laplace domain
Express effect of inputs in terms of transfer
functions
Y (s)
G 1(s)
U 1(s)
Y (s)
G 2 (s)
U 2 (s)
First order Processes

Examples,
Examples Liquid storage
Fi
h
F
dh
Fi F Fi h
dt
A d h
Fi h
dt
dh
h K p Fi
dt
dh
h K p Fi
dt
First Order Processes

Examples:
Examples Speed of a Car
dv
ubv
dt
M dv 1
u v
b dt
b
dv
K pu v
dt
Stirred-tank heater
M
dT
C pV
C p F T Q
dt
V dT
1
Q T
F dt
C p F
dT
K pQ T
dt
Note:
T i n ( t ) 0
K p
v ( s )
u ( s ) s 1
K p
T ( s )
Q ( s ) s 1
First Order Processes

Kp
A/
Speed of a car
M/b
1/b
Stirred-tank heater
1/CpF
V/F
Liquid Storage Tank
First order processes are characterized by:

1. Their capacity to store material, momentum
and energy
2. The resistance associated with the flow of
mass, momentum or energy in reaching their
capacity
First order processes

Liquid storage:
Capacity to store mass : A
Resistance to flow : 1/
Car:
Capacity to store momentum: M
Resistance to momentum transfer : 1/b
Stirred-tank heater
Capacity to store energy: CpV
Resistance to energy transfer : 1/ CpF
Time Constant = = (Storage capacitance)*

(Resistance to flow)
First order process

Step response of first order process
Y (s)
M
s 1 s
p
Step input signal of magnitude M

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
y(t)/KpM
0.632
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
t/
First order process
What do we look for?

Process Gain: Steady-State Response
K p
lim
K
s 0 s 1
O v e ra ll C h a n g e in y y
O v e ra ll C h a n g e in u u
Process Time Constant:
Time Required to Reach

63.2% of final value
What do we need?
Process at steady-state
Step input of magnitude M
Measure process gain from new steady-state
Measure time constant
First order process

Ramp response:
K
Y (s)
s 1 s 2
Ramp input of slope a
5
4.5
y(t)/Kpa
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
t/
3.5
4.5
First order Process

Sinusoidal response
lim
K P
A
Y (s)
s 1 s 2
(s)
A
2
1
Sinusoidal input Asin(t)
t
s in ( t )
2
1.5
1
AR
y(t)/A
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
t/
12
14
16
18
20

10
Bode Plots
AR/Kp
High Frequency
10
10
Asymptote
Corner Frequency
-1
-2
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
10
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-2
10
-1
10
Amplitude Ratio
K
AR
1 2 2
10
10
10
Phase Shift
ta n
( )
Integrating Processes
Example: Liquid storage tank
Fi
h
F
dh
Fi F
dt
dh
A
Fi F
dt
F i F i F is ,
F F Fs
dh
A
Fi F
dt
H ( s ) 1 / A
H ( s )
1/ A
s
Process
F ( acts
s ) as a spure integrator F i ( s )
Process Modeling
Step input of magnitude M
Input
Output
K M
KM
Y (s)
2
s s
s
Slope = KM
Time
Time
0
y (t)
KM t
t 0
t 0
Integrating processes
Unit impulse response
Input
Output
K
KM
Y (s)
M
s
s
Time
KM
Time
0
y (t)
KM
t 0
t 0
Integrating Processes
Rectangular pulse response

tw s
KM
) 2 (1 e
s
tw s
Input
Output
K M
Y (s)
(1 e
s s
Time
KM t
y (t)
K M tw
Time
t tw
t tw
Second Order Processes

Three types of second order process:
1. Multicapacity processes: processes that
consist of two or more capacities in series
e.g. Two heated stirred-tanks in series
2. Inherently second order processes: Fluid
or solid mechanic processes possessing
inertia and subjected to some acceleration
e.g. A pneumatic valve
3. Processing system with a controller:
Presence of a controller induces oscillatory
behavior
e.g. Feedback control system
Second order Processes
Multicapacity Second Order Processes

Naturally arise from two first order processes in
series
U(s)
U(s)
K P1
1s 1
P 2
2s 1
K P1K P2
(1s 1)( 2s 1)
Y(s)
Y(s)
By multiplicative property of transfer functions
K P1K P2
Y (s)
U (s)
( 1s 1 )( 2s 1 )

Inherently second order process:
e.g. Pneumatic Valve
Momentum Balance
M
d dx
dx
pA K x C
dt dt
dt
M d 2x C dx
A
x
p
K dt
K dt
K
A
x ( s )
K
p ( s ) M
s2 C s 1
K
K
Second order process:

Assume the general form
K P
Y (S ) 2 2
U (s)
s 2 s 1
where P = Process steady-state gain
= Process time constant
= Damping Coefficient
Three families of processes
Underdamped
=1 Critically Damped
Overdamped
Note: Chemical processes are typically

overdamped or critically damped
Roots of the characteristic polynomial
4 2 2 4
22
2 1
Case 1) >1: Two distinct real roots

System has an exponential
behavior
Case 2) =1: One multiple real root
Exponential behavior
Case 3) : Two complex roots
System has an oscillatory behavior
Step response of magnitude M

K P
M
Y (S ) 2 2
s 2 s 1 s
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
Second order process

Observations
Responses exhibit overshoot (y(t)/KM >1)
when <1
Large yield a slow sluggish response
Systems with =1 yield the fastest response
without overshoot
As with ) becomes smaller system
becomes more oscillatory
If system oscillates without bounds
(unstable)
Example - Two Stirred tanks in series

M
Tin, w
Response of T2 to
Tin is an example of an
overdamped second
order process
Q
T1, w
T2, w
Q

Characteristics of underdamped second order
process
1. Rise time, tr
2. Time to first peak, tp
3. Settling time, ts
4. Overshoot:
a
O S exp
b
5. Decay ratio:
c
D R exp
b
2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
+5%
c
1
-5%
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
tp
0
tr
10
15
20
ts
25
30
35
40
45
50
Second Order Process
Sinusoidal Response
Y (s)
y (t)
K p
2 s 2 2 s 1 s 2 2
K p A
1
where
1
ta n
2 2
2 2
s in ( t )
2
1 ( )
ARn
2 2
2 2

Bode Plots
10
10
=1
-1
10
-1
10
10
10
0
-50
=1
-100
-150
-1
10
10
10
More Complicated processes

Transfer function typically written as rational
function of polynomials
a 0 a 1 s a s
r(s)
G (s)
q ( s) b 0 b1 s b s
where r(s) and q(s) can be factored as
q ( s ) b 0 ( 1 s 1 ) ( 2 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
r ( s ) a 0 ( a 1 s 1 ) ( a 2 s 1 ) ( a s 1 )
s.t.
( a 1 s 1 ) ( a s 1 )
G (s) K
( 1 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
Poles and zeroes

Definitions:
the roots of r(s) are called the zeros of G(s)
z1
a1
, , z
the roots of q(s) are called the poles of G(s)
p1
1
1
, , p
1
Poles: Directly related to the underlying

differential equation
If Re(pi)<0, then there are terms of the form
e-pit in y(t) - y(t) vanishes to a unique point
If any Re(pi)>0 then there is at least one
term of the form epit - y(t) does not vanish
Poles
e.g. A transfer function of the form
K
s(1 s 1)( 2 s 2 2 2 s 1)
with
can factored to a sum of
0 1
A constant term from s

A e-t/ from the term (s+1)
A function that includes terms of the form
t
t
2 s in ( 1 2 t
2 co s( 1 2 t )
2
Poles can help us to describe the qualitative
behavior of a complex system (degree>2)
The sign of the poles gives an idea of the stability
of the system
Poles
Calculation performed easily in MATLAB
Function ROOTS
e.g.
q (s) s3 s2 s 1
ROOTS([1 1 1 1])
ans =
-1.0000
0.0000 + 1.0000i
0.0000 - 1.0000i
MATLAB
Poles
Plotting poles in the complex plane
1
0.8
0.6
Imaginary axis
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
Real axis
-0.2
q (s) s3 s2 s 1
Roots: -1.0, 1.0j, -1.0j
0.2
Poles
Process Behavior with purely complex poles
Unit Step Response
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
y(t)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
15
20
25
t
30
35
40
45
50
Poles
1
0.8
0.6
Imaginary axis
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
Real axis
0.2
0.3
2 s 3 2 .5 s 2 3 s 1
Roots: -0.4368, -0.4066+0.9897j,

-0.4066-0.9897j
0.4
0.5
Poles
Process behavior with mixed real and
complex poles
Unit Step Response
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
y(t)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
t
12
14
16
18
20
Poles
1.5
Imaginary axis
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
Real axis
0.2
2 s 4 2 .5 s 3 3 s 2 s 0 .5
Roots: -0.7441, -0.3805+1.0830j,

-0.3805-1.0830j, 0.2550
0.4
0.6
Poles
Process behavior with unstable pole
Unit Step Response
160
140
120
100
y(t)
80
60
40
20
0
-20
10
t
12
14
16
18
20
Zeros
Transfer function:
K p ( a s 1)
G (s)
(1 s 1)( 2 s 1)
t
t
1 a
2
1 e
2 e
y (t) K p M 1 a
1
2
1
2
Let 3 is the dominant time constant

1
2
16
2.5
y(t)/KM
2
8
1.5
2
1
0.5
0
-1
-2
0
-0.5
10
Time
12
14
16
18
20
Zeros
Observations:
Adding a zero to an overdamped second order
process yields overshoot and inverse response
Inverse response is observed when the zeros lie
in right half complex plane, Re(z)>0
Overshoot is observed when the zero is
dominant ( a 1 )
Pole-zero cancellation yields a first order
process behavior
In physical systems, overshoot and inverse
response are a result of two process with
different time constants, acting in opposite
directions
Zeros
Can result from two processes in parallel
K1
1 s 1
U(s)
Y(s)
K2
2 s 1
( a s 1)
G (s) K
(1 s 1)( 2 s 1)
K K1 K2
K 1 2 K 2 1
K1 K 2
If gains are of opposite signs and time constants

are different then a right half plane zero
occurs
Dead Time
Fi
Control loop
Time required for the

fluid to reach the valve
usually approximated as
dead time
Manipulation of valve does not lead to immediate

change in level
Dead time
Delayed transfer functions
U(s)
d s
G (s)
Y ( s ) e d s G ( s )U ( s )
e.g. First order plus dead-time
e d s K p
G (s)
s1
Second order plus dead-time
e d s K P
G (s)
2 s 2 2 s 1
Y(s)
Dead time
Dead time (delay)

G (s) e d s
Most processes will display some type of lag
time
Dead time is the moment that lapses between
input changes and process response
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
y/KM
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
D 0.5
1.5
2.5
3
t/tau
3.5
4.5
5.5
Step response of a first order plus dead time process
Dead Time
Problem
use of the dead time approximation makes
analysis (poles and zeros) more difficult
e d s K p
G (s)
s1
Approximate dead-time by a rational

(polynomial) function
Most common is Pade approximation
s
2
e s G 1 ( s)
1 s
2
1
2
1 s
2
12
e s G 2 ( s )
2
1 s
2
12
s2
s2
Pade Approximations
In general Pade approximations do not

approximate dead-time very well
Pade approximations are better when one

approximates a first order plus dead time
process
e
K p 1 2 s K p
G (s)
s 1
s1
1 s
2
s
Pade approximations introduce inverse

response (right half plane zeros) in the
transfer function
Limited practical use
Process Approximation
Dead time
First order plus dead time model is often used
for the approximation of complex processes
Step response of an overdamped second

order process
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
- First Order plus dead time

o Second Order
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
Second order overdamped or first order plus

dead time?
1.2
1
0.8
-- First order plus dead time

- Second order overdamped
o Actual process
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
Second order process model may be more

difficult to identify
Transfer Function of a delay system

First order processes
K Pe s
Y (s)
U (s)
s 1
D
K Pe s
Y (S ) 2 2
U (s)
s 2 s 1
D
U(s)
Y(s)
Ds
G(s)
More complicated processes

Higher order processes (e.g. N tanks in series)
U(s)
Y(s)
K P1K P 2 K PN
(1 s 1 ) ( 2 s 1 ) ( N s 1 )
For two dominant time constants and
process well approximated by
e s K p
G (s)
(1s 1)( 2 s 1)
N
i
i3
For one dominant time constant process well

approximated by
N
e s K p
G (s)
i
(1s 1)
i2
Example
G (s)
1
(1 0 s 1 )( 2 5 s 1 )( s 1 ) 2
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
e 12 s
G 1(s)
25s 1
0.4
e 2 s
G 2 (s)
(1 0 s 1 )( 2 5 s 1 )
0.2
0
-0.2
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Empirical Modeling
Objective:
To identify low-order process dynamics (i.e.,
first and second order transfer function models)
Estimate process parameters (i.e., Kp, and
Methodologies:
1. Least Squares Estimation
more systematic statistical approach
2. Process Reaction Curve Methods
quick and easy
based on engineering heuristics
Empirical Modeling
Least Squares Estimation:
Simplest model form
E [ y ] 0 1 x
Process Description
y 0 1 x
where
y
x
1, 0
vector of process measurement

vector of process inputs
process parameters
Problem:
Find 1, 0 that minimize the sum of squared
residuals (SSR)
SSR
n
( yi
i1
0 1 x i ) 2
Empirical Modeling
Solution
Differentiate SSR with respect to parameters
n
SSR
2 ( y i 0 1 x i ) 0
0
i1
n
SSR
2 x i ( y i 0 1 x i ) 0
1
i1
These are called the normal equations.
Solving for parameters gives:
0 y 1 x
1
where
n
xiyi nxy
i1
n 2
2
xi nx
i1
n x
i
i1 n
i1
yi
n
Empirical Modeling
Compact form
Define
y1
1
y
1
Y 2 , X

y
1
n
x1
x2
xn
0

1
Then
y 1 0 1 x 1
y x
0
1 2
E 2
y x
n
0
1 n
Y X
Problem
find value of that minimize SSR
T
SSR E
Empirical Modeling
Solution in Compact Form
Normal Equations can be written as
E T E
0

which can be shown to give
X T X X T Y
or
1 T
X T X
X Y
In practice
Manipulations are VERY easy to perform in
MATLAB
Extends to general linear model (GLM)
E [ y ] 0 1 x 1 p x p
Polynomial model
E [ y ] 0 1 x 1 1 1 x 12
Empirical Modeling
Control Implementation:
previous technique applicable to process model that
are linear in the parameters (GLM, polynomials in
x, etc)
i.e. such that, for all i, the derivatives
function of
are
e i not a

typical process step responses

first order
E [ y ( t )] K p M (1 e t / )
Nonlinear in Kp and
overdamped second order
1 e t /1 2 e t / 2
E [ y ( t ) ] K p M 1
Nonlinear in K p, and 1 2
nonlinear optimization is required to find the

optimum parameters
Empirical Modeling
Nonlinear Least Squares required for control
applications
system output is generally discretized
y ( t ) [ y ( t1 ) , y ( t 2 ) , , y ( t n ) ]
or, simply
y ( t ) [ y 1 , y 2 , , y n ]
First Order process (step response)
E [ y i ] K p M (1 e ti / )
Least squares problem becomes the minimization of
SSR
i1
( y i K p M (1 e ti / ) ) 2
This yields an iterative problem solution best

handled by software packages: SAS, Splus,
MATLAB (function leastsq)
Empirical Modeling
Example
Nonlinear Least Squares Fit of a first order
process from step response data
Model
E [ y ( t ) ] 3 .0 K p ( 1 e t / )
Data
Step Response
4.5
4
3.5
3
y(t)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
10
20
30
40
t
50
60
70
80
Empirical Modeling
Results:
Using MATLAB function leastsq obtained
K p 1 . 3 4 3 2 , 1 1 .8 9 6 2
Resulting Fit
Step Response
4.5
4
3.5
3
y(t)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
10
20
30
40
t
50
60
70
80
Empirical Modeling
Approximation using delayed transfer
functions
For first order plus delay processes
0
E [ yi]
( ti ) /
K
M
(
1
e
)
p
0 t
t
Difficulty
Discontinuity at makes nonlinear least
squares difficult to apply
Solution
1. Arbitrarily fix delay or estimate using
alternative methods
2. Estimate remaining parameters
3. Readjust delay repeat step 2 until best value of
SSR is obtained
Empirical Modeling
Example 2
Underlying True Process
G (s)
1
(1 0 s 1 )( 2 5 s 1 )( s 1 ) 2
Data
3.5
3
2.5
y(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Empirical Modeling
Fit of a first order plus dead time
1 .0 0 0 0 e 1 1 s
G 1(s)
( 2 7 .3 8 9 9 s 1 )
Second order plus dead time
0 .9 9 4 6 e 2 s
G 2 (s)
( 2 4 . 9 0 5 8 s 1 ) ( 1 0 .1 2 2 9 s 1 )
3.5
3
2.5
y(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Empirical Modeling
Process reaction curve method:
based on approximation of process using first
order plus delay model
D(s)
M/s
Y*(s)
Gp
Gc
U(s)
Gs
Ym(s)
Manual Control
1. Step in U is introduced
2. Observe behavior ym(t)
3. Fit a first order plus dead time model
K M e s
Ym (s)
s( s 1)
Y(s)
Empirical Modeling
First order plus dead-time approximations
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
KM
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
Estimation of steady-state gain is easy

Estimation of time constant and dead-time is
more difficult
Empirical Modeling
Estimation of time constant and dead-time
from process reaction curves
find times at which process reaches 35.3% and
85.3%
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
y(t)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
20
t1
40
60
t2
80
t
100
Estimate
1 .3 t 1 0 .2 9 t 2
0 .6 7 ( t 2 t1 )
120
140
160
Empirical Process
Example
For third order process
G (s)
Estimates:
1
(1 0 s 1 )( 2 5 s 1 )( s 1 ) 2
t 1 2 3 , t 2 6 2 .5
1 1 .7 8 , 2 6 .4 6
Compare:
Least Squares Fit
1 .0 0 0 0 e 1 1 s
G 1(s)
( 2 7 .3 8 9 9 s 1 )
Reaction Curve
1 .0 0 e 1 1 .7 8 s
G 1(s)
( 2 6 .4 6 s 1 )
Empirical Modeling
Process Reaction Curve Method
based on graphical interpretation
very sensitive to process noise
use of step responses is troublesome in normal
plant operations
frequent unmeasurable disturbances
difficulty to perform instantaneous step
changes
maybe impossible for slow processes
restricted to first order models due to reliability
quick and easy
Least Squares
systematic approach
computationally intensive
can handle any type of dynamics and input signals
can handle nonlinear control processes
reliable
Feedback Control
Steam heated stirred tank
Fin,Tin
TC
TT
IP
LT
Ps
Steam
Condensate
LC
IP
F,T
Feedback control system: Valve is manipulated to

increase flow of steam to control tank temperature
Closed-loop process: Controller and process are
interconnected
Feedback Control
Control Objective:
maintain a certain outlet temperature and tank
level
Feedback Control:
temperature is measured using a thermocouple
level is measured using differential pressure
probes
undesirable temperature triggers a change in
supply steam pressure
fluctuations in level trigger a change in outlet
flow
Note:
level and temperature information is measured at
outlet of process/ changes result from inlet flow
or temperature disturbances
inlet flow changes MUST affect process before an
adjustment is made
Examples
Feedback Control:
requires sensors and actuators
e.g. Temperature Control Loop
Controller
Valve
TR -
Tin, F
P
Tank
M
Controller:
Thermocouple
software component implements math

hardware component provides calibrated signal for
actuator
Actuator:
physical (with dynamics) process triggered by controller
directly affects process
Sensor:
monitors some property of system and transmits signal
back to controller
Closed-loop Processes
Study of process dynamics focused on uncontrolled or

Open-loop processes
Observe process behavior as a result of specific input
signals
U(s)
Gp
Y(s)
In process control, we are concerned with the dynamic

behavior of a controlled or Closed-loop process
D(s)
controller
R(s)+
-
Gc
actuator
Gv
process
Gp
sensor
Controller is dynamic system
Gm that interacts with the
process and the process hardware to yield a specific
behaviour
+ Y(s)
Closed-Loop Transfer Function

Block Diagram of Closed-Loop Process
D(s)
controller
R(s)+
-
Gc
actuator
Gv
process
Gp
sensor
Gm
Gp(s)
- Process Transfer Function
Gc(s)
- Controller Transfer Function
Gm(s)
- Sensor Transfer Function
Gv(s)
- Actuator Transfer Function
+ Y(s)

For control, we need to identify closed-loop
dynamics due to:
- Setpoint changes
- Disturbances
Servo
Regulatory
1. Closed-Loop Servo Response

transfer function relating Y(s) and R(s) when
D(s)=0
Y ( s ) G p ( s )V ( s )
Y ( s ) G p ( s ) G v ( s )U ( s )
Y (s) G p (s)G
Y (s) G p (s)G
(s)G c (s)E (s)
(s)G c(s)R (s) Ym (s)

Y ( S ) G p ( s )G v ( s )G c ( s )R ( s ) G m ( s )Y ( s )
v
Isolate Y(s)
G p (s)G v (s)G c (s)

Y (s)
R (s)
1 G p (s)G v (s)G c (s)G m (s)

2. Closed-loop Regulatory Response
Transfer Function relating D(s) to Y(s) at
R(s)=0
Y ( s ) D ( s ) G p ( s )V ( s )
Y ( s ) D ( s ) G p ( s ) G v ( s )U ( s )
Y (s) D (s) G p (s)G
Y (s) D (s) G p (s)G
(s)G c (s)E (s)
( s ) G c ( s )0 Y m ( s )
Y ( s ) D ( s ) G p ( s ) G v ( s ) G c ( s )0 G m ( s )Y ( s )
v
Isolating Y(s)
Y (s)
1
D (s)
Closed-loop Transfer Function

2. Regulatory Response with Disturbance
Dynamics
G d (s)
Y (s)
D (s)
Gd(s)
Disturbance (or load) transfer

function
3. Overall Closed-Loop Transfer Function

Servo
G p (s)G v (s)G c (s)
Y (s)
R (s)
G d (s)
D (s)
Regulatory
PID Controllers
The acronym PID stands for:
P
I
D
- Proportional
- Integral
- Derivative
PID Controllers:
greater than 90% of all control
implementations
dates back to the 1930s
very well studied and understood
optimal structure for first and second order
processes (given some assumptions)
always first choice when designing a
control system
PID controller equation:
1 t
de
u (t) K c e(t)
e ( ) d D
I 0
dt
uR
PID Control
PID Control Equation
Derivative
Action
Proportional
Action
1 t
de
u (t) K c e(t)
e ( ) d D
I 0
dt
Integral
Action
uR
Controller
Bias
PID Controller Parameters

Kc
Proportional gain
I
D
uR
Integral Time Constant

Derivative Time Constant
Controller Bias
PID Control
PID Controller Transfer Function
u ( t ) u R U ( s ) K c 1
D s E (s)
Is
or:
I
U ( s ) P D s E ( s )
s
Note:
numerator of PID transfer function cancels
second order dynamics
denominator provides integration to remove
possibility of steady-state errors
PID Control
Controller Transfer Function:
G c (s) K c 1
D s
Is
or,
I
G c ( s ) P D s
s
Note:
Many variations of this controller exist
Easily implemented in SIMULINK
each mode (or action) of controller is better
studied individually
Proportional Feedback
Form:
u (t) u R K ce(t)
Transfer function:
or,
U '( s) K c E ( s)
G c (s) K c
Closed-loop form:
G p (s)G v (s)K c
Y (s)
R (s)
1 G p (s)G v (s)K cG m (s)
1
D (s)
1 G p (s)G v (s)K cG m (s)
Example:
Given first order process:
K p
G p (s)
,
s 1
G v (s) 1,
G m (s) 1
for P-only feedback closed-loop dynamics:

K pK c
1 K pK c
Y (s)
R (s)
s 1
1 K pK c
1 K pK c
1 K pK c
Closed-Loop
Time Constant
1
1 K pK c
D (s)
s 1
Final response:
K pK c
lim y s e rv o ( t)
,
1
K
K
t
p c
lim y re g ( t )
1 K pK c
t
Note:
for zero offset response we require
lim y serv o ( t ) 1 ,
Tracking Error
lim y re g ( t ) 0
Disturbance rejection
Possible to eliminate offset with P-only

feedback (requires infinite controller gain)
Need different control action to eliminate offset
(integral)
Servo dynamics of a first order process under
proportional feedback
1
10.0
0.9
5.0
0.8
y(t)/KM
0.7
0.6
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.2
Kc
0.1
0
t/
0.01
9
- increasing controller gain eliminates off-set
10
High-order process
e.g. second order underdamped process
1.5
y(t)/KM
5.0
2.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.01
0
10
15
20
25
increasing controller gain reduces offset, speeds

response and increases oscillation
Important points:
proportional feedback does not change the
order of the system
started with a first order process
closed-loop process also first order
order of characteristic polynomial is
invariant under proportional feedback
speed of response of closed-loop process is
directly affected by controller gain
increasing controller gain reduces the
closed-loop time constant
in general, proportional feedback
reduces (does not eliminate) offset
speeds up response
for oscillatory processes, makes closedloop process more oscillatory
Integral Control
Integrator is included to eliminate offset
provides reset action
usually added to a proportional controller to
produce a PI controller
PID controller with derivative action turned
off
PI is the most widely used controller in
industry
optimal structure for first order processes
PI controller form
u (t) K c e(t)
e
(
)
d
uR
I 0
1 t
Transfer function model
1
U ( s ) K c 1
E (s)
Is
PI Feedback
Closed-loop response
Y (s)
I s 1
Is
R (s)
I s 1
G m (s)
Is
G p (s)G v (s)K c
1 G p (s)G v (s)K c
1
Is
1 G p (s)G v (s)K c
Is
D (s)
G m (s)
more complex expression

degree of denominator is increased by one
PI Feedback
Example
PI control of a first order process
K p
G p (s)
,
s 1
G v (s) 1,
G m (s) 1
Closed-loop response
Is
Y (s)
I 2 1
s
K cK p
K
1
R (s)
K cK p
Is1
cK p
I 2 I
s
K cK p
K cK p
I 2 1 K cK p
K cK p
K cK p
Note:
offset is removed
closed-loop is second order
Is1
D (s)
PI Feedback
Example (contd)
effect of integral time constant and controller gain
on closed-loop dynamics
natural period of oscillation
cl
I
K cK p
damping coefficient
1

2
K p
K c K p 1
K c I
K cK p
integral time constant and controller gain can

induce oscillation and change the period of
oscillation
PI Feedback
Effect of integral time constant on servo
dynamics
1.8
0.01
1.6
1.4
Kc=1
0.1
y(t)/KM
1.2
0.5
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
PI Feedback
Effect of controller gain
10.0
5.0
1
0.9
1.0
0.5
0.8
y(t)/KM
0.7
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
I=1
0.1
0
affects speed of response

increasing gain eliminates offset quicker
10
PI Feedback
Effect of integral action of regulatory
response
0.4
0.35
0.3
y(t)/KM
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
10
reducing integral time constant removes effect

of disturbances
makes behavior more oscillatory
PI Feedback
Important points:
integral action increases order of the system in
closed-loop
PI controller has two tuning parameters that can
independently affect
speed of response
final response (offset)
integral action eliminates offset
integral action
should be small compared to proportional
action
tuned to slowly eliminate offset
can increase or cause oscillation
can be de-stabilizing
Derivative Action
Derivative of error signal
Used to compensate for trends in output
measure of speed of error signal change
provides predictive or anticipatory action
P and I modes only response to past and current
errors
Derivative mode has the form
D
de
D
Kc
dt
if error is increasing, decrease control
action
if error is decreasing, decrease control
action
Always implemented in PID form
1 t
de
u (t) K c e(t)
e ( ) d D
I 0
dt
uR
PID Feedback
Transfer Function
U ( s ) K c 1
D s E (s)
Is
Closed-loop Transfer Function
D I s2 I s
G p ( s ) G v ( s ) K c
Is
Y (s)
D I s2 I s
1 G p ( s ) G v ( s ) K c
Is
R (s)
G m ( s )
1
D I s2 I s 1
G m ( s )
1 G p ( s ) G v ( s ) K c
Is
Slightly more complicated than PI form
D (s)
PID Feedback
Example:
PID Control of a first order process
K p
G p (s)
,
s 1
G v (s) 1,
G m (s) 1
Closed-loop transfer function
Y (s)
D I s2 I s 1
R (s)
2 1 KcK p
I
I s 1
D I s
KcK p
KcK p
2 I
s
s
KcK p
D (s)
1 KcK p
I
2
I s 1
DI s
KcK p
KcK p
KcK p
PID Feedback
Effect of derivative action on servo dynamics
1.6
1.4
y(t)/KM
1.2
1
0.1
0.8
0.5
0.6
1.0 2.0
0.4
0.2
0
10
PID Feedback
Effect of derivative action on regulatory
response
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0.1
2.0
0.5 1.0
0
-0.05
-0.1
10
increasing derivative action reduces impact of

disturbances on control variable
slows down servo response and affects oscillation
of process
Derivative Action
Important Points:
Characteristic polynomial is similar to PI
derivative action does not increase the order of the
system
adding derivative action affects the period of
oscillation of the process
good for disturbance rejection
poor for tracking
the PID controller has three tuning parameters and
can independently affect,
speed of response
final response (offset)
servo and regulatory response
derivative action
should be small compared to integral action
has a stabilizing influence
difficult to use for noisy signals
usually modified in practical implementation
Closed-loop Stability
Every control problem involves a
consideration of closed-loop stability
General concepts:
BIBO Stability:
An (unconstrained) linear system is said to
be stable if the output response is bounded
for all bounded inputs. Otherwise it is
unstable.
Comments:
Stability is much easier to prove than
unstability
This is just one type of stability
Closed-loop dynamics
G cG vG p
1
*
Y (s)
Y (s)
D (s)
1 G cG vG pG m
1 G cG vG pG m
GOL
if GOL is a rational function then the closed-loop
transfer functions are rational functions and
take the form
a 0 a 1 s a s
r(s)
G (s)
q ( s) b 0 b1 s b s
and factor as
( a 1 s 1 ) ( a s 1 )
G (s) K
( 1 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
Closed-loop stability
General Stability criterion:
A closed-loop feedback control system is stable
if and only if all roots of the characteristic
polynomial are negative or have negative real
parts. Otherwise, the system is unstable.
Unstable region is the right half plane of the
complex plane.
Valid for any linear systems.
Underlying system is almost always nonlinear
so stability holds only locally. Moving away
from the point of linearization may cause
instability.
Problem reduces to finding roots of a
polynomial
Easy (1990s) way : MATLAB function ROOTS
Traditional:
1. Routh array:
Test for positivity of roots of a
polynomial
2. Direct substitution
Complex axis separates stable and
unstable regions
Find controller gain that yields purely
complex roots
3. Root locus diagram
Vary location of poles as controller
gain is varied
Of limited use
Closed-loop stability
Routh array for a polynomial equation
a n s n a n 1 s n 1 a 1 s a 0 0
is
1
2
3
4
n 1
an
a n 1
b1
c1
z1
an2
an3
b2
c2
an4
an5
b3
where
a n 1a n 2 a n 3a n
a
a
a n 5a n
, b 2 n 1 n 4
,
a n 1
a n 1
b a
b 2 a n 1
b a
b 3 a n 1
c1 1 n 3
, c2 1 n 5
,
b
b
1
Elements of left1 column must be
positive to
b1
roots with negative real parts
have
Example: Routh Array

Characteristic polynomial
2 . 3 6 s 5 1 . 4 9 s 4 0 .5 8 s 3 1 . 2 1 s 2 0 .4 2 s 0 . 7 8 0
Polynomial Coefficients
a 5 2 . 3 6 , a 4 1 . 4 9 , a 3 0 .5 8 , a 2 1 . 2 1 , a 1 0 . 4 2 , a 0 0 . 7 8
Routh Array
a 5 ( 2 .3 6 )
a 4 ( 1 .4 9 )
b 1 ( 2 .5 0 )
c 1 ( 0 .7 2 )
d 1 ( 1 .8 9 )
e 1 ( 0 .7 8 )
a 3 ( 0 .5 8 )
a 2 ( 1 .2 1 )
b 2 ( 0 .8 2 )
c 2 ( 0 .7 8 )
d 2 (0)
Closed-loop system is unstable
a 1 ( 0 .4 2 )
a 0 ( 0 .7 8 )
b3 (0)
Direct Substitution
Technique to find gain value that de-stabilizes the

system.
Observation:
Process becomes unstable when poles appear on
right half plane
Find value of Kc that yields purely complex
poles
Strategy:
Start with characteristic polynomial
1 K cG v (s)G p (s)G m (s) 1 K c

Write characteristic equation:
q (s) K r(s) 0
c (s=j)
Substitute for complex pole
j )
Solve for qKc( and
K c r ( j ) 0
r(s)
q s
Example: Direct Substitution

Characteristic equation
s 1
1 Kc
0
3
2
s 0 .5 s 0 .5 s 0 . 7 5
s 3 0 .5 s 2 0 .5 s 0 . 7 5 K c s K c 0
s 3 0 .5 s 2 ( K c 0 .5 ) s ( K c 0 . 7 5 ) 0
Substitution for s=j

( j ) 3 0 .5 ( j ) 2 ( K c 0 .5 ) j ( K c 0 . 7 5 ) 0
j 3 0 .5 2 ( K c 0 .5 ) j ( K c 0 . 7 5 ) 0
Real Part
Complex Part
( K c 0 .5 ) 3 0
0 .5 2 K c 0 . 7 5 0
K c 0 .5 2 0 . 7 5 ( 0 .5 2 0 . 7 5 0 .5 ) 3 0
0 .5 2 0 . 2 5 0
2 /2,
Kc 1
System is unstable
if
Kc 1
Root Locus Diagram

Old method that consists in plotting poles of
characteristic polynomial as controller gain is
changed
e.g.
s 3 0 .5 s 2 ( K c 0 .5 ) s ( K c 0 . 7 5 ) 0
1.5
Kc-0
Imaginary Axis
0.5
-0.5
Kc-0
-1
-1.5
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
Real Axis
0.5
1.5
Stability and Performance
Given plant model, we assume a stable closed-loop

system can be designed
Once stability is achieved - need to consider

performance of closed-loop process - stability is not
enough
All poles of closed-loop transfer function have

negative real parts - can we place these poles to get
a good performance
C
Space of all
Controllers
S
P
S: Stabilizing Controllers for a given plant

P: Controllers that meet performance
Controller Tuning
Can be achieved by
Direct synthesis : Specify servo transfer
function required and calculate required
controller - assume plant = model
Internal Model Control: Morari et al. (86)
Similar to direct synthesis except that plant and
plant model are concerned
Tuning relations:
Cohen-Coon - 1/4 decay ratio
designs based on ISE, IAE and ITAE
Frequency response techniques
Bode criterion
Nyquist criterion
Field tuning and re-tuning
Direct Synthesis
From closed-loop transfer function
G cG p
C
R 1 G cG p
Isolate Gc
1 C R
Gc
G p 1 C
R
For a desired trajectory (C/R)d and plant model

Gpm, controller is given by
Gc
1
G pm
R d
1 C
R d
not necessarily PID form

inverse of process model to yield pole-zero
cancellation (often inexact because of process
approximation)
used with care with unstable process or processes
with RHP zeroes
Direct Synthesis
1. Perfect Control
C 1

R d
cannot be achieved, requires infinite gain
2. Closed-loop process with finite settling time

1
C

R d cs 1
For 1st order Gp, it leads to PI control
For 2nd order, get PID control
3. Processes with delay

e c s
C

R d cs 1
requires
again, 1st corder
leads to PI control
2nd order leads to PID control
IMC Controller Tuning
D
R
+
G c*
Gp
Gpm

C
G c* G p
1 G c* ( G p G p m )
1 G c* G p
1 G c* ( G p G p m )
In terms of implemented controller, Gc

Gc
G c*
1 G c* G p m
IMC Controller Tuning

1. Process model factored into two parts
G p m G p m G p m
where contains dead-time and RHP zeros,

G pm
steady-state
gain scaled to 1.
2. Controller
G c*
1
G p m
where f is the IMC filter

f
1
( c s 1) r
based on pole-zero cancellation

not recommended for open-loop unstable
processes
very similar to direct synthesis
Example
PID Design using IMC and Direct synthesis
for the process
e 9 s 0 .3
G p (s)
30s 1
Process parameters: K=0.3,
IMC Design: Kc=6.97, I=34.5, d=3.93

Filter
f
1
12s 1
2. Direct Synthesis: Kc=4.76, I=30

Servo Transfer function
9 s
C e

R d 12s 1
Example
Result: Servo Response
IMC and direct synthesis give roughly same
results
25
IMC
20
Direct
Synthesis
15
y(t)
10
50
100
150
200
250
t
IMC not as good due to Pade approximation
300
Example
Result: Regulatory response
40
35
30
y(t)
25
Direct Synthesis
20
IMC
15
50
100
150
200
250
t
Direct synthesis rejects disturbance more
rapidly (marginally)
300
Tuning Relations
Process reaction curve method:
based on approximation of process using first
order plus delay model
D(s)
1/s
Y*(s)
Gp
Gc
U(s)
Gs
Ym(s)
Manuel Control
1. Step in U is introduced
2. Observe behavior ym(t)
3. Fit a first order plus dead time model

K e s
Ym (s)
s1
Y(s)
Tuning Relations
Process response
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
KM
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
4. Obtain tuning from tuning correlations

Ziegler-Nichols
Cohen-Coon
ISE, IAE or ITAE optimal tuning relations
Ziegler-Nichols Tunings
Controller
P-only
Kc
Ti
PI
(0.9 / K p )( / )
3.3
PID
(1.2 / K p )( / )
2.0
(1 / K p )( / )
Td
0.5
- Note presence of inverse of process gain in

controller
gain
- Introduction of integral action requires reduction in
controller gain
- Increase gain when derivation action is introduced
Example:
PI:
PID:
e 9 s 0 .3
G p (s)
30s 1
Kc= 10
Kc= 13.33
I=4.5
I=29.97
I=18
Example
Ziegler-Nichols Tunings: Servo response

50
Z-N PI
45
Z-N PID
40
y(t)
35
Direct Synthesis
30
25
20
50
100
150
200
250
300
Example
Regulatory Response
40
35
30
Direct Synthesis
25
Z-N PI
20
Z-N PID
15
10
50
100
150
200
250
Z-N tuning
Oscillatory with considerable overshoot
Tends to be conservative
300
Cohen-Coon Tuning Relations

Designed to achieve 1/4 decay ratio
fast decrease in amplitude of oscillation
Controller
P-only
Kc
Ti
PI
(1 / K p )( / )[0.9 / 12 ]
[30 3( / )]
9 20( / )
PID
(1 / K p )( / )[1 / 3 ]
(1 / K p )( / )[
3 16
]
12
[32 6( / )]
13 8( / )
Example:
PI: Kc=10.27
I=18.54
Kc=15.64
I=19.75
d=3.10
Td
4
11 2( / )
Tuning relations
Cohen-coon: Servo
55
50
C-C PID
45
40
35
C-C PI
30
25
20
50
100
150
200
250
More aggressive/ Higher controller gains

Undesirable response for most cases
300
Tuning Relations
Cohen-Coon: Regulatory
40
35
30
C-C PI
25
y(t)
20
C-C PID
15
10
5
50
100
150
Highly oscillatory t
Very aggressive
200
250
300
Integral Error Relations

1. Integral of absolute error (IAE)
IA E e (t ) d t
0
2. Integral of squared error (ISE)
IS E e (t )2 d t
penalizes large errors
0
3. Integral of time-weighted absolute error

(ITAE)
IT A E t e (t ) d t
0
penalizes errors that persist

ITAE is most conservative
ITAE is preferred
ITAE Relations
Choose Kc, I and d that minimize the ITAE:
For a first order plus dead time model, solve
for:
IT A E
0,
Kc
IT A E
0,
I
IT A E
0
d
Design for Load and Setpoint changes yield

different ITAE optimum
Type of
Input
Load
Type of
Controller
PI
Load
PID
Set point
PI
Set point
PID
Mode
P
I
P
I
D
P
I
P
I
D
0.859
0.674
1.357
0.842
0.381
0.586
1.03
0.965
0.796
0.308
-0.977
-0.680
-0.947
-0.738
0.995
-0.916
-0.165
-0.85
-0.1465
0.929
ITAE Relations
From table, we get
Load Settings:
B
Y A
K K c d
I
Setpoint Settings:
Y A
K K c d ,
Example
0 .3 e 9 s
G s
,
30s 1
B
I
G L 1
ITAE Relations
Example (contd)
Setpoint Settings
0 .8 5
K K c 0 .9 6 5 9 3 0
2 .6 8 5 2
K c 2 .6 8 5 2 K 2 .6 8 5 2 0 .3 8 .9 5
0
.
7
9
6
0
.
1
4
6
5
3 0 0 .7 5 2 0
I 0 . 7 5 2 0 3 0 0 . 7 5 2 0 3 9 .8 9
0 .9 2 9
d
9
0 .1 0 0 6
0 .3 0 8 3 0
d 0 .1 0 0 6 3 . 0 1 9 4
Load Settings:
0 .9 4 7
9
K K c 1 .3 5 7 3 0
4 .2 4 3 7
K c 4 .2 4 3 7 4 .2 4 3 7
1 4 .1 5
K
0 .3
0 .7 3 8
9
0
.
8
4
2
2 .0 4 7 4
30
I
I 2 .0 4 7 4 3 0 2 .0 4 7 4 1 4 .6 5
0 .9 9 5
d
9
0 .1 1 5 0
0 .3 8 1 3 0
d 0 .1 1 5 0 3 . 4 4 9 7
ITAE Relations
Servo Response
60
55
ITAE(Load)
50
45
40
ITAE(Setpoint)
35
30
25
20
50
100
150
200
250
300
design for load changes yields large overshoots

for set-point changes
ITAE Relations
Regulatory response
40
35
30
ITAE(Setpoint)
25
20
15
10
5
0
ITAE(Load)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Tuning relations are based GL=Gp

Method does not apply to the process
Set-point design has a good performance for this
case
Tuning Relations
In all correlations, controller gain should be

inversely proportional to process gain
Controller gain is reduced when derivative action is

introduced
Controller gain is reduced as increases
Integral time constant and derivative constant
should increase as increases
In general,
Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-Coon tuning relations

yield aggressive control with oscillatory response
(requires detuning)
ITAE provides conservative performance (not

aggressive)
I 0 .2 5
CHE 446
Frequency Response of
Linear Control Systems
First order Process

Response to a sinusoidal input signal
lim
(s)
A
2
10
14
s in ( t )
2
1.5
1
AR
y(t)/A
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
t/
12
16
18
20
Recall: Sinusoidal input Asin(t) yields

sinusoidal output caharacterized by AR and
10
Bode Plots
AR/Kp
High Frequency
10
10
Asymptote
Corner Frequency
-1
-2
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
10
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-2
10
-1
10
Amplitude Ratio
K
AR
1 2 2
10
10
10
Phase Shift
ta n
( )
Second Order Process
Sinusoidal Response
Y (s)
y (t)
K p
2 s 2 2 s 1 s 2 2
K p A
1
where
1
ta n
2 2
2 2
s in ( t )
2
1 ( )
ARn
2 2
2 2

Bode Plot
1
10
AR
Amplitude reaches
a maximum at
resonance frequency
10
=1
-1
10
-1
10
10
10
-50
=1
-100
-150
-1
10
10
10
Frequency Response
Q: Do we have to take the Laplace inverse
to compute the AR and phase shift of a 1st
or 2nd order process?
No
Q: Does this generalize to all transfer
function models?
Yes
Study of transfer function model response to

sinusoidal inputs is called Frequency
Domain Response of linear processes.
Frequency Response
Some facts for complex number theory:
i) For a complex number:
a R e ( w ),
w a bj
b Im ( w )
Im
b
It follows that
w
where
a w c o s ( ),
R e ( w )2 Im ( w )2
such that
w w e j
Re
b w s in ( )
Im ( w )
a rg ( w ) ta n 1
R e(w )
Frequency Response
Some facts:
ii) Let z=a-bj and w= a+bj then
w z a n d a rg ( z ) a rg ( w )
iii) For a first order process

K p
G (s)
s1
Let s=j
K p (1 j )
K p
K p
G ( j )
j
2
2
2
2
j 1 (1 j ) 1
1
such that
K p
G ( j )
( A R )
1 2 2
a rg ( G ( j )) ta n 1 ( )( P h a s e L a g )
Frequency Response
Main Result:
The response of any linear process G(s) to
a sinusoidal input is a sinusoidal.
The amplitude ratio of the resulting signal
is given by the Modulus of the transfer
function model expressed in the frequency
domain, G(i).
The Phase Shift is given by the argument of
the transfer function model in the
frequency domain.
i.e.
A R G ( j )
R e ( G ( j )) 2 Im ( G ( j )) 2
P h a s e A n g le ta n
Im ( G ( j ))
R e ( G ( j ))
Frequency Response
For a general transfer function
r ( s ) e s ( s z1 ) ( s z m )
G (s)
q (s)
( s p 1 ) ( s p n )
Frequency Response summarized by
G ( j ) G ( j ) e j
where
is the modulus of G(j) and
G ( j )
is the argument of G(j)
Note: Substitute for s=j in the transfer
function.
Frequency Response
The facts:
For any linear process we can calculate the
amplitude ratio and phase shift by:
i) Letting s=j in the transfer functionG(s)
ii) G(j) is a complex number. Its modulus is the
amplitude ratio of the process and its argument
is the phase shift.
iii) As , the frequency, is varied that G(j) gives
a trace (or a curve) in the complex plane.
iv) The effect of the frequency, , on the process
is the frequency response of the process.
Frequency Response
Examples:
1. Pure Capacitive Process G(s)=1/s
K j
K
G ( j )
j

j j
1 K /
A R , ta n

0
2
2. Dead Time G(s)=e-s
G ( j ) e j
A R 1,
Frequency Response
Examples:
3. n process in series
G ( s ) G 1 ( s ) G n ( s )
Frequency response of G(s)
G ( j ) G 1 ( j ) G n ( j )
therefore
G 1 ( j ) e j1 G n ( j ) e jn
n
A R G ( j ) G i ( j )
i1
i1
i1
a rg ( G ( j )) a rg ( G i ( j )) i
Frequency Response
Examples.
4. n first order processes in series
K1
K n
G (s)
1s 1 n s 1
AR
K1
1 12 2
K n
1 n2 2
t a n 1 1 t a n 1 n
5. First order plus delay

G (s)
AR
K p (1 )
1 2 2
K p e s
s1
, ta n 1 ( )
Frequency Response
To study frequency response, we use two

types of graphical representations
1. The Bode Plot:
Plot of AR vs. on loglog scale
Plot of vs. on semilog scale
2. The Nyquist Plot:
Plot of the trace of G(j) in the
complex plane
Plots lead to effective stability criteria and

frequency-based design methods
Bode Plot
Pure Capacitive Process
AR
AR
10
10
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Phase Angle
-89
-89.5
-90
-90.5
-91
-2
10
-1
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
Bode Plot
G (s) G 1(s)G 2 (s)G 3 (s)
1
1
1
G 1(s)
, G 2 (s)
, G 3(s)
10s 1
5s 1
s1
0
10
-2
10
G3
G2
G1
-4
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
0
-100
-200
-300
-4
10
G ( j )
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
1
(1 1 0 2 2 )(1 5 2 2 )(1 1 2 2 )
ta n 1 (1 0 ) ta n 1 (5 ) ta n 1 ( )
10
Bode Plot
G ( s ) e s
G ( j ) 1,
Example: Effect of dead-time

G d ( s) e 2 sG 1 ( s)G 2 ( s)G 3 ( s)
0
10
-2
10
G=Gd
-4
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
0
-100
-200
Gd
-300
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
G
0
10
10
Nyquist Plot
Plot of G(j) in the complex plane as is
varied
Relation to Bode plot
AR is distance of G(j) for the origin
Phase angle, , is the angle from the Real
positive axis
Example First order process (K=1, =1)
G ( j )
Nyquist Plot
Dead-time
Second Order
1
1
Nyquist Plot
Third Order
1
G (s) 3
s 3s2 3s 1
Effect of dead-time (second order process)

G (s)
1
s2 3s 1
, G d (s) e 2 s
Che 446: Process Dynamics and

Control
Frequency Domain
Controller Design
PI Controller
AR K c
1
2
ta n 1 ( 1 / I )
3
10
10
AR101
0
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
PID Controller
1
A R K c D
ta n
1
D
10
AR
10
10
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
100
50
0
-50
-100
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Bode Stability Criterion

Consider open-loop control system
D(s)
R(s)
+
-
Gp
Gc
U(s)
+
+
Y(s)
Gs
Ym(s)
Open-loop Response to R(s)
1. Introduce sinusoidal input in setpoint (D(s)=0) and
observe sinusoidal output
2. Fix gain such AR=1 and input frequency such that
=-180
3. At same time, connect close the loop and set
R(s)=0
Q: What happens if AR>1?

A closed-loop system is unstable if the
frequency of the response of the open-loop
GOL has an amplitude ratio greater than
one at the critical frequency. Otherwise it
is stable.
Strategy:
1. Solve for in
a rg ( G O L ( j ))
2. Calculate AR
A R G O L ( j )

To check for stability:
1. Compute open-loop transfer function
2. Solve for in =-
3. Evaluate AR at
4. If AR>1 then process is unstable
Find ultimate gain:
1. Compute open-loop transfer function
without controller gain
2. Solve for in =-
3. Evaluate AR at
1
4. Let
K cu
AR
Bode Criterion
Consider the transfer function and controller
5 e 0 .1 s
G (s)
( s 1 ) ( 0 .5 s 1 )
1
G c ( s ) 0 . 4 1
0 .1 s
- Open-loop transfer function

5 e 0 .1 s
1
G O L (s)
0 .4 1
( s 1 ) ( 0 .5 s 1 )
0 .1 s
- Amplitude ratio and phase shift

A R
5
1
1
2
0 .1 t a n
1 0 .2 5
1
( ) ta n
0 .4 1
1
1
0 .0 1 2
( 0 .5 ) t a n
- At =1.4128, =-AR=6.746
0 .1
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning
Closed-loop tuning relation
With P-only, vary controller gain until system (initially stable)
starts to oscillate.
Frequency of oscillation is c,
Ultimate gain, Ku, is 1/M where M is the amplitude of the openloop system
Ultimate Period
Ziegler-Nichols Tunings
P
Ku/2
PI
Ku/2.2 Pu/1.2
PID
Ku/1.7 Pu/2
2
Pu
c
Pu/8
Nyquist Stability Criterion

If N is the number of times that the
Nyquist plot encircles the point (-1,0) in
the complex plane in the clockwise
direction, and P is the number of openloop poles of GOL that lie in the right-half
plane, then Z=N+P is the number of
unstable roots of the closed-loop
characteristic equation.
Strategy
1. Substitute s=j in GOL(s)
2. Plot GOL(j) in the complex plane
3. Count encirclements of (-1,0) in the
clockwise direction
Nyquist Criterion
Consider the transfer function
5 e 0 .1 s
G (s)
( s 1 ) ( 0 .5 s 1 )
and the PI controller
1
G c ( s ) 0 .4 1
0 .1 s
Stability Considerations
Control is about stability
Considered exponential stability of

controlled processes using:
Routh criterion
Direct Substitution
Polynomial
Root Locus
(no dead-time)
Bode Criterion (Restriction on phse angle)
Nyquist Criterion
Nyquist is most general but sometimes

difficult to interpret
Roots, Bode and Nyquist all in MATLAB
MAPLE is recommended for some

applications.
CHE 446
Process Dynamics and
Control
Advanced Control Techniques:

1. Feedforward Control
Feedforward Control
Feedback control systems have the general
form:
D(s)
UR(s)
R(s)
Gc
GD
+ +
Gv
Gp
U(s)
Ym(s)
+
Y(s)
Gs
where UR(s) is an input bias term.
Feedback controllers
output of process must change before any action
is taken
disturbances only compensated after they affect
the process
Feedforward Control
Assume that D(s)

can be measured before it affects the process
effect of disturbance on process can be
described with a model GD(s)
Feedforward Control is possible.

Feedforward
Controller
D(s)
Gf
GD
R(s)
Gc
+ +
Gv
U(s)
Ym(s)
Gp
Gs
Feedback/Feedforward Controller
Structure
+
Y(s)
Feedforward Control
Heated Stirred Tank
F,Tin
TT
TT
TC1
Ps
Steam
Condensate
Is this control configuration feedbackF,T
or
feedforward?
How can we use the inlet stream thermocouple to
regulate the inlet folow disturbances
Will this become a feedforward or feedback
controller?
Feedforward Control
A suggestion:
TC2
TT
F,Tin
TT +
TC1
Ps
Steam
Condensate
How do we design TC2?
F,T
Feedforward Control
The feedforward controller:
D(s)
Gf
GD
UR(s) +
+
U(s)
Gv
Gp
+
Y(s)
Transfer Function
Y ( s ) G D ( s ) D ( s ) G P ( s ) G v ( s )U ( s )
Y ( s ) G D ( s ) D ( s ) G P ( s ) G v ( s )(U R ( s ) G f ( s ) D ( s ))
Y ( s ) ( G D ( s ) G p ( s ) G v ( s ) G f ( s )) D ( s ) G p ( s ) G v ( s )U R ( s )
Y (s) (G D ( s) G p (s)G v ( s)G f (s)) D (s) Y R (s)
Tracking of YR requires that
G D (s) G p (s)G v (s)G f (s) 0

G D (s)
G f (s)
G p (s)G v (s)
Feedforward Control
Ideal feedforward controller:
G f (s)
G D (s)
G p (s)G v (s)
Exact cancellation requires perfect plant and

perfect disturbance models.
G D (s) G p (s)G v (s)G f (s) 0
Feedforward controllers:
very sensitive to modeling errors
cannot handle unmeasured disturbances
cannot implement setpoint changes
Need feedback control to make control system
more robust
Feedforward Control
Feedback/Feedforward Control
D(s)
Gf
GD
R(s)
Gc
+ +
Gv
U(s)
Ym(s)
Gp
Gs
What is the impact of Gf on the closed-loop

performance of the feedback control system?
Y(s)
Feedforward Control
Regulatory transfer function of
feedforward/feedback loop
C (s) G D (s) G f (s)G v (s)G p (s)
D (s) 1 G c (s)G v (s)G p (s)G m (s)

Perfect control requires that (as above)
G D (s)
G f (s)
G v (s)G p (s)
Note:
Feedforward controllers do not affect closedloop stability
Feedforward controllers based on plant models
can be unrealizable (dead-time or RHP zeroes)
Can be approximated by a lead-lag unit or pure
gain (rare)
G f (s) K f
(1s 1)
( 2 s 1)
K D
G f (s)
K vK p
Feedforward Control
Tuning: In absence of disturbance model
lead-lag approximation may be good
(1s 1)
G f (s) K f
( 2 s 1)
Kf obtained from open-loop data
K D
K f
K vK p
1 and 2
from open-loop data
1 p ,
2 D
from heuristics
1
0 .5
2
Trial-and-error
1
2 .0
2
1 2 c
Feedforward Control
Example:
Plant:
10
(1 0 s 1 )(5 s 1 )( s 1 )
1
G D (s)
( 2 .5 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
G p (s)
Plant Model:
1 0 e 6 s
G pm (s)
10s 1
es
G D m (s)
2 .5 s 1
Feedback Design from plant model: IMC PID

tunings
K c 0 .2 6 , I 1 3 , D 2 .3 1
Feedforward Control
Possible Feedforward controllers:
1. From plant models:
e 5 s (1 0 s 1 )
G f (s)
1 0 ( 2 .5 s 1 )
Not realizable
2. Lead-lag unit
1 1 0 , 2 2 .5
1
K f
10
3. Feedforward gain controller:
K f
1
10
Feedforward Control
For Controller 2 and 3
Disturbance Controller with Feedforward
1.2
1
0.8
.. - Gain Controller
0.6
-- - Lead-Lag Controller
- - No FF Controller
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Some attenuation observed at first peak

Difficult problem because disturbance dynamic
are much faster
Feedforward Control
Useful in manufacturing environments if

good models are available
outdoor temperature dependencies can be
handle by gain feedforward controllers
scheduling issues/ supply requirements can be
handled
Benefits are directly related to model

accuracy
rely mainly on feedback control
Disturbances with different dynamics

always difficult to attenuate with PID
may need advanced feedback control approach
(MPC, DMC, QDMC, H-controllers, etc)
Use process knowledge (and intuition)
CHE 446:
Process Dynamics and
Control
Advanced Control Techniques

2. Cascade Control
Cascade Control
Jacketed Reactor:
TT
F,Tin
TT
TC1
Ps
Steam
FT
Condensate
Conventional Feedback Loop:
F,T
operate valve to control steam flow

steam flow disturbances must propagate through
entire process to affect output
does not take into account flow measurement
Cascade Control
Consider cascade control structure:
TT
F,Tin
TT
TC1
FC
FT
Ps
Steam
Condensate
Note:
F,T
TC1 calculates setpoint cascaded to the flow

controller
Flow controller attenuates the effect of steam
flow disturbances
Cascade Control
Cascade systems contain two feedback loops:
Primary Loop
regulates part of the process having slower
dynamics
calculates setpoint for the secondary loop
e.g. outlet temperature controller for the
jacketed reactor
Secondary Loop
regulates part of process having faster
dynamics
maintain secondary variable at the desired
target given by primary controller
e.g. steam flow control for the jacketed
reactor example
Gc1
+
-
Block Diagram
Gc2
Gm1
Gm2
Gv2
Gp2
D2
Gp1
D1
+
Cascade Control
Cascade Control

1. Inner loop
G p2G v2G c2
C2
G cl2
R 2 1 G p2G v2G c2G m 2
2. Outer loop
G p1G cl2 G c1
C1
R 1 1 G p1G cl2 G c1G m 1
Characteristic equation
1 G p1G cl2 G c1G m 1 0
G p2G v2G c2
1 G p1
G c1G m 1 0
1 G p2G v2G c2G m 2
1 G p 2 G v 2 G c2 G m 2 G p1G p 2 G v 2 G c2 G c1G m 1 0
Cascade Control
Stability of closed-loop process is governed by
1 G p 2 G v 2 G c2 G m 2 G p1G p 2 G v 2 G c2 G c1G m 1 0
Example
K p1
G p1
, G c1 K c1 , G v1 G m 1 1
1s 1
K p2
G p2
, G c2 K c2 , G m 2 1
2s 1
K p2
K p2 K p1
1 K c2
K c1
0
2s 1
2 s 1 1s 1
(1s 1)( 2 s 1) K c 2 K p 2 (1s 1) K c1 K p 2 K p1 0
1 2 s 2 (1 2 K c 2 K p 2 1 ) s 1 K c 2 K p 2
K c1 K p 2 K p1 0
Cascade Control
Design a cascade controller for the following
system:
1. Primary:
e 0 .1 s
G p1(s)
, G m 1 1,
( 0 .5 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
1
G c1 K c1 1
Is
2. Secondary:
1
,G v2 G m 2 1
0 .1 s 1
G c2 K c2
G p2
Cascade Control
1. PI controller only
0 .1 s
1
1
e
G O L 1 K c 1 1
s 0 .1 s 1 ( 0 . 5 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
A R K c1 1
ta n
0 .0 1 2 1
0 .2 5 2 1
1 t a n 1 ( 0 .1 )

t a n 1 ( 0 . 5 ) t a n 1 ( ) 0 .1
Critical frequency
c 2 .9 9 ,
A R 0 .1 7 8
Maximum gain
K c 1 5 .6 1
2 1
Cascade Control
Bode Plots
AR
ln()
Cascade Control
2. Cascade Control
Secondary loop
G O l2 K c2
1
0 .1 s 1
no critical frequency gain can be large

Let Kc2=10.
Primary loop
G O L 1 K c1 1
10
0 .1 s
e
0 .1 s 1
1
( 0 .5 s 1 ) ( s 1 )
110
0 .1 s 1
10
e 0 .1 s
K c1
1 1 s ( 0 . 5 s 1 ) ( 0 .1 s 1 )
11
Cascade Control
Closed-loop stability:
AR
10 1
K c1 1 1
2
0
.
1
2
1
11
1 0 .2 5 2
1 0 .1
0 .1 t a n
t a n 1 ( 0 .5 )
11
2
Bode
c 4 .1 3 ,
A R 0 .0 9 5 8
Maximum gain Kc1=10.44

Secondary loop stabilizes the primary loop.
Cascade Control
Use cascade when:
conventional feedback loop is too slow at
rejecting disturbances
secondary measured variable is available which
responds to disturbances
has dynamics that are much faster than
those of the primary variable
can be affected by the manipulated variable
Implementation
tune secondary loop first
operation of two interacting controllers requires
more careful implementation
switching on and off
CHE 446
Advanced Control Techniques

3. Dead-time Compensation
Dead-time Compensation
Consider feedback loop:
D
R
Gc
Gp
-s
Dead-time has a de-stabilizing effect on closedloop system

Presence of dead-time requires detuning of
controller
Need a way to compensate for dead-time
explicitly
Motivation
e s
G (s) 2
, 0 .1 0 . 7 5
s 3s 2
1
G c ( s ) 4 1
0.75
0.5 0.25 0.1
Use plant model to predict deviation from
setpoint
D
R
Gc
Gp
-s
Gpm
Result:
Removes the de-stabilizing effect of dead-time
Problem:
Cannot compensate for disturbances with just
feedback (possible offset)
Need a very good plant model
C (s)
1,
D (s)
C (s) G cG
R (s) 1 G
s
e
p
cG pm
Characteristic Equation becomes

1 G cG pm 0
Effect of dead-time on closed-loop

stability is removed
Controller is tuned to stabilize
undelayed process model
No disturbance rejection
D
R
1
4 1
e-0.5s
s 3s 2
1
s2 3s 2
Servo Response
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
10
Regulatory Response
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Include effect of disturbances using model
predictions
D ( s ) Y ( s ) Y ( s )
D ( s ) G p e s U ( s ) G p m e s U ( s )
Adding this to previous loop gives
D
R
+
Gc
Gpm
Gp
Gpm
+
e
-s
e-s
+
+
-
s
1 (e
e
)G cG pm
C (s)
s
s
D (s) 1 G G
G pm e
)
c pm G c (G pe
G c G p e s
C (s)
s
s
R (s) 1 G G
G pm e
)
c pm G c (G pe
Characteristic Equation
1 G cG pm G c (G pe
G pm e
) 0
Slow
Fast
Dynamics
Effect of dead-time on Dynamics
stability is
removed
Disturbance rejection is achieved
Controller tuned for undelayed dynamics
D
R
+ -
1
4 1
s 3s 2
+
2
s 3s 2
s 3s 2
+ C
-0.5s
+
+
-0.5s
D ( s )
Servo Response
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
10
Regulatory Response
1
0.5
0
-0.5
Alternative form
D
R
+
Gc
Gp
+
e
-s
Gpm(1-e-s)
Reduces to classical feedback control system

with
*
c
G (s)
G c (s)
1 G p m (1 e m s )
called a Smith-Predictor
Dead-time compensation
Smith-Predictor Design
1. Determine delayed process model
Y ( s ) G p m ( s ) e m s
2. Tune controller Gc for the undelayed
transfer function model Gpm
3. Implement Smith-Predictor as
*
c
G (s)
G c (s)
1 G p m (1 e m s )
4. Perform simulation studies to tune

controller and estimate closed-loop
performance over a range of modeling
errors (Gpm and m)
Effect of dead-time estimation errors:
R
+ -
s 3s 2
+
+
4 1
s
2
s 3s 2
s 3s 2
-0.5s
D
+ C
+
-s
+
D ( s )

Lecture 1 A

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Lecture 1 A

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CHEE 434/821

the design of a control system is essential to

What is the purpose of a control system?

Stirred tank heater

The speed of an automobile

To regulate of a process output despite the effect of

To stabilize unstable processes e.g.

Operability, safety (stability)

A controller is a system designed to regulate a given

Block diagrams are models of the physical systems

Mass, Energy and Momentum

A controlled process is a system which is

e.g. Most controlled systems are feedback controlled

The controller is designed to provide regulation of

Control is meant to provide regulation of process

Classical Feedback Control System

The deviation of the plant output, e=(r-y), from its

Process is a combination of sensors and actuators

Controller is a computer (or operator) that performs

e.g. Classical feedback control loop

Q: Is this positive or negative feedback?

Measure Ti, adjust Q

Identification of all process variables

Tank inlet and outlet mass flows

Manipulated Measured Unmeasured Control

Process Control and Modeling

In designing a controller, we must

Control System Development

Control System Development

Control System Development

Implement and tune the controlled process

Dynamic vs. Steady-state

Dynamic vs. Steady-state

Step change in input to observe

Empirical vs. Mechanistic models

Empirical vs Mechanistic models

In existing processes, we really on

In new applications (or difficult problems)

General modeling procedure

For control applications:

The balance equation

1. Mass Balance (Stirred tank)

Application of a mass balance

Modeling objective: Control of tank level

Fundamental quantity: Mass

Assumptions: Incompressible flow

There exists a solution for each value of the

Under constant hold-up and constant mean

Typically work done on system by external

Assume that the heat capacities are constant

Since Tref is fixed and we assume constant

There exists a unique solution

where V/F is the tank residence time (or time

Objectives: height of liquid in tank L

Fo, A, Ap, v, h, g, L, KF,

Mechanistic modeling results in nonlinear

Solution requires numerical integration

To get solution, we must first:

For the heated stirred tank,

Study of control system dynamics

Focus on specific inputs

Common Input Signals

Common Input Signals