Power Transmission and Distribution

Power System Structure

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Generation
Medium 24 kV
Voltage 21 kV
15 kV
13.8 kV

Transmission / Sub transmission

Extra High Voltage
High Voltage

765 kV
400 kV
220 kV
132 kV
110 kV
66 kV

Distribution
Medium Voltage

33 kV
22 kV
11 kV

The
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and
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with
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..
Energy Automation

Badiya Page 1

Power Transmission and Distribution

System Disturbances
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Short Circuits in earthed systems

Symmetrical (3 phase)
Phase to Phase (and Earth)
Phase to Earth
Earth Faults in non effectively
earthed systems
Overload Conditions
Underfrequency/Undervoltage
Overvoltage

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 2

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protective Relaying
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Role of Protection

Protective Relaying is the most important feature of

power system design aimed at minimising the
damage to equipment and interruption to service in
the event of faults.

It is therefore a co-factor

among other factors resorted to improve reliability

of power system.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 3

Power Transmission and Distribution

The Purpose of Protection

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

The protection can not prevent system faults,

But it can:

Limit the damage caused by short

circuits

While:

Protecting people and plant from

damage
Selectively clearing faults in
miliseconds
Protecting plant from overload
conditions

Power system must operate in a safe manner at all times.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 4

Power Transmission and Distribution

Causes and Probability of System Disturbances

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Causes
Operator Mistakes
Pollution/Condensation
Equipment failures, e.g. P.T.'s, Isolators
Transient Overvoltages
Probability
System faults (220/400 kV):
3p.a. and 100 km
10-20 kV metal clad switchgear: 10-3 p.a. and feeder
GIS switchgear:
5-10-2 p.a. and bus
outdoor switchgear: 110/132 kV 7*10-2 p.a. -1and bus
220/275 kV
10 p.a. and bus
400 kV
2*10-1 p.a. and bus

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 5

Power Transmission and Distribution

Principles of Relaying
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Since protective relaying comes into action at the time of

equipment distress, a certain safeguard is necessary in
the unlikely event of its failure to act at the hour of need.
Hence, two groups of protective schemes are generally
employed a)

Primary Protection

b)

Back-up Protection

Primary Protection is the first line of defense, whereas

back-up relaying takes over the protection of equipment,
should the primary protection fail.
Energy Automation

Badiya Page 6

Power Transmission and Distribution

Primary Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

The Primary Protection has following characteristic features 1.

It has always a defined zone of operation.

2.

It should operate before any back-up protection

could operate, therefore, it should be faster in
operation.

3.

It should be able to completely isolate the fault

from all the current feeding sources.

4.

Energy Automation

It should be stable for all operating conditions.

Badiya Page 7

Power Transmission and Distribution

Back-up Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

1.

Back-up protection should provide sufficient time

for the primary protection to perform its duty.

2.

Back-up protection covers a wider zone of

protection. Therefore, there is always a possibility
of large scale disturbance, when back-up relays
operate.

3.

Under primary protection failure, several back-up

relays may operate for complete isolation of fault.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 8

Power Transmission and Distribution

Reasons of Primary Protection Failure

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Primary protections failure could be due to any of the

following reasons 1. Current or Potential Transformer failure
2. Loss of Auxiliary Control Voltage
3. Defective Primary Relays
4. Open Circuits in Control & Trip Coil
5. Failure of Breaker
It is therefore logical that back-up relays should not
utilise any of the above items as common with primary
relays.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 9

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Concept
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Circuit Breaker

CT / VT

Cabling
DISTANCE RELAY

Protection

Energy Automation

Battery

The system is only as strong as the weakest link!

Badiya Page 10

Power Transmission and Distribution

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Basic Protection
Requirements

Reliability

dependability (availability)
high dependability = low risk of failure to trip

Security

stable for all operating conditions ,

high security = low risk of over-trip

Speed

high speed minimizes damage

high speed reduces stability problems

Selectivity

trip the minimum number of circuit breakers

Sensitivity

notice smallest fault value

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 11

Power Transmission and Distribution

Zones of Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected when a fault
occurs, protection is arranged in zones
Zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system is left
unprotected
Location of the CT connection to the protection usually defines the zone
Unit type protections have clear zones reach e.g Diff. Relay, REF relay
Zone reach depends on measurement of the system quantities e.g OC , EF,
distance relays . The start will be defined but the extent (or reach) is subject
to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 12

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection - One Out of Two Principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

System
1

Trip
Coil
1

Trip
Coil
2

System
2

Battery 1

Battery 2

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 13

Power Transmission and Distribution

Redundancy Concept of DC Circuits

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Battery 1
Battery 2
Main Protection

Back-up Protection

87T

TR

TC 1
L-

Energy Automation

87BB

50/51
TR

TC 2

Busbar Protection
BF
TR

Trip remote infeed

L-

Badiya Page 14

Power Transmission and Distribution

Factors that influence fault current magnitude

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Infeed

Line

Consumer

G
Short circuit power of the infeed
Voltage level
Line impedance
Fault resistance (arc)
Treatment of star point

Estimate of short circuit currents:

Medium Voltage (10 kV upto 30kV)
High Voltage (110 kV)
Extra High Voltage (220kV + )

Energy Automation

ISCmin > ILmax

ISCmin >= ILmax
ISCmin = 0,25 ILmax

Badiya Page 15

Power Transmission and Distribution

Earth faults: Star-point configuration

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

earthed system
Earth fault = short circuit
is recognised by normal
over-current protection.
With low impedance earthing
the residual current detection
must be more sensitive.

Energy Automation

Peterson Coil

isolated neutral

Earth faults = no short circuit

Supply is not disrupted
Earth fault must be alarmed and removed
as fast as possible
Earth fault location is achieved with
wattmetric earth fault detection

Badiya Page 16

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Current

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

The overcurrent condition is evaluated I>

Suitable for:
I>
ILmax

I
ISCmin

Additional criterion - Time

(to ensure selectivity)

Protection:
Fuses
inverse time protection
definite time protection

Energy Automation

(IDMT)
(DT)

Badiya Page 17

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Current Difference

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Evaluation of node I1 + I2 + I3 + ... In = 0; if the equation is not

satisfied the fault is internal

Security is increased by stabilisation |I1|+|I2|+ ... |In| = Istab
Characteristic:
Idiff
Trip
Istab

definite distinction internal / external faults (no back-up)

Protection:

Line differential protection

Generator-, motor-, transformer differential protection
Busbar protection

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 18

Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Impedance

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

From the voltage and current signals the

impedance is calculated
The impedance is proportional to the fault distance
Characteristic:
X
Z<
R

Additional criterion - Time

(Required for selectivity and back-up protection)

Protection:
Multiple stage distance protection

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 19

Power Transmission and Distribution

Measured signals and time grading principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

A
Protected object
Protection
device

Example distance protection

t
t3
t2
t1
A

Energy Automation

Z1

Z2

Badiya Page 20

Power Transmission and Distribution

Comparison Protection Principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

A
Protected object
Protection
device
Protection
device

communication
momentary values/
binary decisions

Protection
device

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 21

Power Transmission and Distribution

Typical Distance Zone Characteristics

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

MHO-circle

ZA

ZSC'

X
starting zone

external
fault

ZSC

combined circleand straight line

characteristic

Zone 3

internal
fault

Zone 2
Zone 1
R

X
polarised
MHO-circle

polygonal tripping
characteristic
(quadrilateral)

RF
ZS = 0

ZL
R

X
XA

settable arc compensation

ZL

RLB

ZS small
RA

ZS large

ZS

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 22

Power Transmission and Distribution

Further Typical Protection Criteria

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Current increase
Under and over voltage
Directional comparison
Phase comparison
Power direction
Phase angle
Over and under frequency
Frequency gradient
Harmonics
Special criteria in machine protection

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 23

Power Transmission and Distribution

Typical Protected Objects

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Generators

< 1MVA upto 1500 MVA

Transformers

0,1 MVA upto 1000 MVA

Busbars

from 110 kV up to 750kV

Lines

from 1kV upto 750 kV

Motors

approx. 100 kVA upto 20 MVA

Reactors, Capacitor etc.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 24

Power Transmission and Distribution

Redundancy Concepts
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Busbar Protection

Line Protection
1 out of 2 principle

LP1
LP2

trip line

Energy Automation

1 out of n principle

&

trip section 1

&

trip section 2

Check
Zone

Transformer Protection
Relay
1
.
.
.
Relay
n

Section
1

2 out of 2 principle

Section
2

trip transformer

Badiya Page 25

Power Transmission and Distribution

Stability Limits in Transmission System

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

70

stability limit

60

Protection 50
Fault
Clearing 40
Time
30
ms
20
10
0
1300

Energy Automation

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

Line
Load
MW

Badiya Page 26

Power Transmission and Distribution

Failure Rate of Redundant Systems

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

0.12
0.1
Failure
rate

active failure (over trip)

0.08
0.06
0.04
passive failure (under trip)

0.02
0
1
Energy Automation

number of relays

10
Badiya Page 27

Power Transmission and Distribution

Why Digital Protection?

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Integration of the protection functions for one feeder:

Feeder protection device
Example: overhead line of extra high voltage

Energy Automation

Distance protection with I>> or u</i>-exitation

Three-pole reclosure
Directional earth fault detection
Fault location
Event log
Fault recording

Badiya Page 28

Power Transmission and Distribution

Why Digital Protection?

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Self-supervision
Raising of the availability

Plausibility control of the input values

Supervision of the a/d-conversion
Internal testing of the computer systems (watch-dog)
Supervision of the memory chips
Testing the trip-relay-coil

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 29

Power Transmission and Distribution

Contact Terms
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Contacts provide electrical outputs for tripping and remote

indication purposes

Self-reset

The contacts remain in the operated condition only while the controlling quantity is applied,
returning to their original condition when it is removed.

Hand or electrical reset

These contacts remain in the operated condition after the controlling quantity is removed. They
can be reset either by hand or electrically by an auxiliary electromagnetic element

A 'make' contact

is one that closes when the relay picks up

A break contact

is one that is closed when the relay is de-energised and opens when the relay picks up.

Energy Automation

Badiya Page 30