Quality Management

Quality
PMIs quality philosophy summarized by
Definition of quality
No gold-plating
Prevention over inspection

PMI Quality Definition

QUALITY IS CONFORMANCE TO
REQUIREMENTS AND FITNESS OF USE

No Gold-plating

Dont give the customer extras

Adds no-value to the project because
it is beyond the scope
Could cost more
May be based on impressions not
requests

Prevention over inspection

Quality must be planned NOT inspected

Six Sigma
Originally developed by Motorola,
Six Sigma refers to an extremely
high measure of process capability
A Six Sigma capable process will
return no more than 3.4 defects per
million operations (DPMO)
Highly structured approach to
process improvement

Six sigma

Six Sigma
1. Define critical outputs
and identify gaps for
improvement

DMAIC Approach

2. Measure the work and

collect process data
3. Analyze the data
4. Improve the process
5. Control the new process to
make sure new performance
is maintained

 Tools Of TQM
Check Sheets
Scatter Diagrams
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Pareto Charts
Flow Charts
Histograms
Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Seven Tools for TQM

(a) Check Sheet: An organized method of

recording data
Defect
A
B
C

1
///
//
/

2
/
/
//

Hour
4
5
/
/
/

6
/

7
///
//
//

8
/
///
////
Figure 6.5

Seven Tools for TQM

Productivity

(b) Scatter Diagram: A graph of the value

of one variable vs. another variable

Absenteeism

Figure 6.5

Seven Tools for TQM

(c) Cause and Effect Diagram: A tool that
identifies process elements (causes) that
might effect an outcome
Cause
Materials

Methods

Effect

Manpower

Machinery

Figure 6.5

Seven Tools for TQM

Percent

Frequency

(d) Pareto Charts: A graph to identify and plot

problems or defects in descending order of
frequency

Figure 6.5

Pareto Chart

Seven Tools for TQM

(e) Flow Charts (Process Diagrams): A chart

that describes the steps in a process

Figure 6.5

Flow Charts
Operator
takes phone
order.

Orders wait
to be picked
up.

Order waits
for sales rep.

Orders
wait for
supervisor.

No

Is order
complete?
Orders are
moved to
supervisors
in-box.

Supervisor
inspects
orders.

Yes
Order is
fulfilled.

Seven Tools for TQM

(f) Histogram: A distribution showing the
frequency of occurrence of a variable

Frequency

Distribution

Repair time (minutes)

Figure 6.5

Seven Tools for TQM

(g) Statistical Process Control Chart: A chart with
time on the horizontal axis to plot values of a
statistic

Upper control limit

Target value
Lower control limit

Time

Figure 6.5

Statistical Process Control

(SPC)
Variability is inherent in every process
Natural or common causes
Special or assignable causes

Provides a statistical signal when

assignable causes are present
Detect and eliminate assignable causes
of variation

Natural Variations
Also called common causes
Affect virtually all production processes
Expected amount of variation
Output measures follow a probability distribution
For any distribution there is a measure of central
tendency and dispersion
If the distribution of outputs falls within acceptable
limits, the process is said to be in control

Assignable Variations
Also called special causes of variation
Generally there is some change in the process

Variations that can be traced to a specific reason

The objective is to discover when assignable causes
are present
Eliminate the bad causes
Incorporate the good causes

Samples

(a) Samples of the

product, say five
boxes of cereal
taken off the filling
machine line, vary
from each other in
weight
Figure S6.1

Frequency

To measure the process, we take

samples and analyze the sample
statistics following these steps

Each of these
represents one
sample of five
boxes of cereal
# #
# # #
# # # #
# # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # #

Weight

Samples

Figure S6.1

The solid line

represents the
distribution

Frequency

(b) After enough

samples are
taken from a
stable process,
they form a
pattern called a
distribution

Weight

Samples
(c) There are many types of distributions, including
the normal (bell-shaped) distribution, but
distributions do differ in terms of central
tendency (mean), standard deviation or
variance, and shape

Frequency

Figure S6.1

Central tendency

Weight

Variation

Weight

Shape

Weight

(d) If only natural

causes of
variation are
present, the
output of a
process forms a
distribution that
is stable over
time and is
predictable

Frequency

Samples

Prediction

e
Tim

Weight
Figure S6.1

Samples

?
?? ??
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
??
?
?
?

Frequency

(e) If assignable
causes are
present, the
process output is
not stable over
time and is not
predicable

Prediction

e
Tim

Weight
Figure S6.1

Control Charts

Constructed from historical data, the

purpose of control charts is to help
distinguish between natural variations and
variations due to assignable causes

Types of Data
Variables
Characteristics that can
take any real value
May be in whole or in
fractional numbers
Continuous random
variables

Attributes
Defect-related
characteristics
Classify products as
either good or bad or
count defects
Categorical or discrete
random variables

Control Charts for Variables

For variables that have continuous
dimensions
Weight, speed, length, strength, etc.

x-charts are to control the central

tendency of the process
R-charts are to control the dispersion of
the process
These two charts must be used together

Control Chart

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

Normal behavior.
Process is in control.

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

One plot out above (or

below). Investigate for
cause. Process is out
of control.

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

Trends in either
direction, 5 plots.
Investigate for cause of
progressive change.

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

Two plots very near

lower (or upper)
control. Investigate for
cause.

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

Run of 5 above (or

below) central line.
Investigate for cause.

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Figure S6.7

Erratic behavior.
Investigate.