Planet Formation

Topic:

Viscous accretion disks

Lecture by: C.P. Dullemond

The formation of a disk

shock
shock

Infalling matter collides with matter from the other side

Forms a shock
Free-fall kinetic energy is converted into heat

kT
GM*
1 2
2 vff
mp
r

At 10 AU from 1M star:

T 25000 K

Heat is radiated away, matter cools, sediments to midplane

Disk is formed

The formation of a disk

3-D Radiation-Hydro simulations of disk formation

Yorke, Bodenheimer & Laughlin 1993

Keplerian rotation (a reminder)

Disk material is almost (!) 100% supported against gravity by its
rotation. Gas pressure plays only a minor role. Therefore it is a
good approximation to say that the tangential velocity of the gas
in the disk is:

Kepler frequency

The angular momentum problem

Angular momentum of 1 M in 10 AU disk:
3x1053
cm2/s
Angular momentum of 1 M in 1 R star:
<<6x1051 cm2/s (=breakup-rotation-speed)
Original angular momentum of disk = 50x higher than
maximum allowed for a star
Angular momentum is strictly conserved!
Two possible solutions:
Torque against external medium (via magnetic fields?)
Very outer disk absorbs all angular momentum by moving
outward, while rest moves inward.
Need friction through
viscosity!

Outward angular momentum transport

Ring A moves faster than ring B.
Friction between the two will try
to slow down A and speed up B.
This means: angular momentum
is transferred from A to B.
A

Specific angular momentum for

a Keplerian disk:
So if ring A looses angular momentum, but is forced to remain on
a Kepler orbit, it must move inward! Ring B moves outward,
unless it, too, has friction (with a ring C, which has friction with D,
etc.).

Molecular viscosity? No!

Problem: molecular viscosity is virtually zero
Reynolds number

uL
Re

uT lfree

Molecular viscosity:

L = length scale
<u>= typical velocity
= viscosity
lfree = m.f.p. of molecule
<uT>= velo of molecule

N=1x1014 cm-3, T=500 K, L=0.01AU

Typical disk (at 1 AU):
Assume (extremely simplified) H2 (1Ang)2.

uT

3kT
2.3 km/s
mp

7.3 10 6 cm2 /s

1
lfree
32 cm
N

Re 4.7 10 9

Turbulent viscosity: Reynolds stress

The momentum equation for hydrodynamics is:

Now consider this gas to be turbulent. We want to know the motion

of average quantities. Assume that turbulence leaves unaffected.
Split v into average and perturbation (turbulence):

v v0 v1
The momentum equation then becomes:

Turbulent viscosity: Reynolds stress

Now average over many eddy turnover-times, and use:

v1 0

and

v0 v1 0

but

v1v1 0
(tensor!)

Then one obtains:

The additional term is the Reynolds stress. It has a trace

(=turbulent pressure) and off-diagonal elements (=turbulent
viscous stress).

Turbulent viscosity: Reynolds stress

Problem with turbulence as origin of viscosity in disks is: most
stability analyses of disks show that the Keplerian rotation
stabilizes the disk: no turbulence!
Debate has reopened recently:
Non-linear instabilities
Baroclynic instability? (Klahr et al.)
But most people believe that turbulence in disks can have only
one origin: Magneto-rotational instability (MRI)

Magneto-rotational instability (MRI)

(Also often called Balbus-Hawley instability)

Highly simplified pictographic explanation:

If a (weak) pull exists between two
gas-parcels A and B on adjacent
orbits, the effect is that A moves
inward and B moves outward: a pull
causes them to move apart!

A
B

The lower orbit of A causes an

increase in its velocity, while B
decelerates. This enhances their
velocity difference! This is positive
feedback: an instability.

A
B

Causes turbulence in the disk

Magneto-rotational instability (MRI)

Johansen & Klahr (2005); Brandenburg et al.

Shakura & Sunyaev model

(Originally: model for X-ray binary disks)
Assume the disk is geometrically thin: h(r)<<r
Vertical sound-crossing time much shorter than radial drift
of gas
Vertical structure is therefore in quasi-static equilibrium
compared to time scales of radial motion
Split problem into:
Vertical structure
(equilibrium reached on short
time scale)
Radial structure
(evolves over much longer
time scale; at each time step vertical structure assumed to be in
equilibrium)

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Vertical structure

(z)
T(z)
Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium:

Equation for temperature gradient is complex: it involves an

expression for the viscous energy dissipation (see later) radiative
transfer, convection etc.
Here we will assume that the disk is isothermal up to the very
surface layer, where the temperature will drop to the effective
temperature

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Vertical structure

Because of our assumption (!) that T=const. we can write:

This has the solution:

(z) 0 exp

A Gaussian!

z2
2
2h

with

kTr 3
mpGM*

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Difficulty: re-express
equations in cylindrical
coordinates. Complex due to
covariant derivatives of
tensors... Youll have to
simply believe the Equations I
write here...

Radial structure
Define the surface density:

(r)

(r,z) dz

Integrate continuity equation over z:

1 (rvr )

0
t r r

(1)

Integrate radial momentum equation over z:

2

v
(v r ) 1 (rv 2r ) (c 2s )
GM

2
r r
r
r
r
t
Integrate tangential momentum equation over z:

(2)
( l v r)

(3)

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Lets first look closer at the radial momentum equation:
2

v
(v r ) 1 (rv 2r ) (c 2s )
GM

2
t
r r
r
r
r

(2)

Let us take the Ansatz (which one can later verify to be true) that v r
<< cs << v.

GM
2
v
r
That means: from the radial momentum equation follows the
tangential velocity

Conclusion: the disk is Keplerian

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Lets now look closer at the tangential momentum equation:
(3)
1 (rv r )

0
t r r

Now use continuity equation

The derivatives of the Kepler frequency can be worked out:

vr
r
r r
3

That means: from the tangential momentum equation follows

the radial velocity

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Radial structure
Our radial structure equations have now reduced to:

1 (rv r )

0
t r r

with

vr
r
r r
3

Missing piece: what is the value of ?

It is not really known what value has. This depends on the

details of the source of viscosity. But from dimensional analysis it
must be something like:

csh

0.001...0.1

Alpha-viscosity (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973)

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Further on alpha-viscosity:

csh
Here the vertical structure comes back into the radial structure
equations!

kTr 3
mpGM*

So we obtain for the viscosity:

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Summary of radial structure equations:

1 (rv r )

0
t r r

vr
r
r r
3

2
If we know the temperature c
everywhere,
we can readily solve these
s
equations (time-dependent or stationary, whatever we like).
If we dont know the temperature a-priori, then we need to solve the above 3
equations simultaneously with energy equation.

Shakura & Sunyaev model

The local accretion rate

vr(r)
Radial velocity can (will) be a function of r. And so is the
surface density. Define now the local accretion rate as the
amount of gas flowing through a cylinder of radius r:

M(r)
2 r (r)v r (r)
In a steady-state situation this must be independent of r:

M(r)
2 r (r)v r (r) M

is then the
where M
accretion rate of the disk.

Shakura & Sunyaev model

2
c
Suppose we know that s is a given power-law:

Ansatz: surface density is also a powerlaw:

cs2 ~ r

~ r
The radial velocity then becomes:
3

vr
r 3( 2)

r r
r
Stationary continuity equation:
(rv r )
0


r

from which follows:

~ r 3 / 2

3
vr
2r

3/2

Proportionality constants
are straightforward from here on...

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Examples:

T ~ r3 / 2

~ r0

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Examples:

T ~ r1

~ r1/ 2

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Examples:

T ~ r1/ 2

~ r1

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Examples:

T ~ r0

~ r3 / 2

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Formulation in terms of accretion rate
is amount of matter per second that moves
Accretion rate M
radially inward throught he disk.

2 rv
M
r
Working this out with previous formulae:

vr

3
M

3
2r

We finally obtain:

(but see later for more

correct formula with inner
BC satisfied)

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Effect of inner boundary condition:
Powerlaw does not go all the way to the star. At inner edge (for
instance the stellar surface) there is an abrupt deviation from
Keplerian rotation. This affects the structure of the disk out to
many stellar radii:

Keep this in mind when

applying the theory!

Shakura & Sunyaev model

How do we determine the temperature?
We must go back to the vertical structure......and the energy
equation.....
First the energy equation: heat production through friction:

9
GM*
3
4
r
For power-law solution: use equation of previous page:
3
2
vr
rv r
2 r
3
The viscous heat production becomes:
3
GM*
Q
2rv r 3

4
r

Shakura & Sunyaev model

How do we determine the temperature?

3
GM*
Q
2rv r 3
4
r
Define accretion rate (amount of matter flowing through the
disk per second):

2 r v constant
M
r

End-result for the viscous heat production:

Shakura & Sunyaev model

How do we determine the temperature?
Now, this heat must be radiated away.
Disk has two sides, each assumed to radiate as black body:

2 Teff4 Q
One obtains:

~ r3 / 4

Shakura & Sunyaev model

How do we determine the temperature?
Are we there now? Almost.... This is just the surface
temperature. The midplane temperature depends also on the
optical depth (which is assumed to be >>1):
4
Tmid
Ross Teff4

The optical depth Ross

is defined as:

Ross 12 Ross

with Rossthe Rosseland mean opacity.

We finally obtain:

Shakura & Sunyaev model

To obtain full solutions, we must first have an expression for the
Rosseland mean opacity.
We can then express the midplane temperature as a function of
the surface density.
In the radial structure equations we can then eliminate the
temperature in exchange for the surface density.
We then have an equation entirely in terms of the surface density.
We solve this equation.

Shakura & Sunyaev model

Example:

Dust power-law opacity

Ross ~ Tmid

Remember from previous page:

~ r

Remember from power-law solutions:

Tmid ~ r

Remember relation between and :

3(2 )

2(5 )

Tmid ~ r / 4 Tmid

/4

4
3/2

r3 / 4

Non-stationary (spreading) disks

So far we assumed an infinitely large disk
In reality: disk has certain size
As most matter moves inward, some matter must
absorb all the angular momentum
This leads to disk spreading: a small amount of outer
disk matter moves outward

Non-stationary (spreading) disks

~, one
r can solve the

Given a viscosity power-law function

Shakura-Sunyaev equations analytically in a time-dependent
manner. Without derivation, the resulting solution is:

C
( 5 / 2 ) /( 2 )

exp

3 1

where we have defined

r /r1

1 (r1)

t/ts 1

with r1 a scaling radius and ts the viscous scaling time:

1
r12
ts
3(2 ) 2 1

Lynden-Bell & Pringle (1974), Hartmann et al. (1998)

Non-stationary (spreading) disks

Time steps of 2x105
year

Lynden-Bell & Pringle (1974), Hartmann et al. (1998)

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

From the rotating collapsing cloud model we know:

rcentrif ~ t4
Initially the disk spreads faster than the centrifugal radius.

radius increases faster than disk spreading

Later the centrifugal

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

A numerical model

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

A numerical model

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

A numerical model

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

A numerical model

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

A numerical model

Formation & viscous spreading of disk

Hueso & Guillot (2005)

Disk dispersal
It is known that disks
vanish on a few Myr
time scale.
But it is not yet
established by which
mechanism. Just
viscous accretion is too
slow.
- Photoevaporation?
- Gas capture
.
by planet?
Haisch et al. 2001

Photoevaporation of disks
(Very brief)

Ionization of disk surface creates surface layer of hot gas. If this

temperature exceeds escape velocity, then surface layer
evaporates.
GM 1/ 2
vesc

r
Evaporation proceeds for radii beyond:

GM
r 2 rgr
csHII