a discussion

on
Condition Monitoring
J S Sastry

Need for
Transformer Condition Monitoring

Expensive capital equipment

Not easy to repair or replace
Advanced computer aided design practices.
Transformers operation.
Condition Monitoring imperative.
A corrective/preventive action can be initiated.

Transformer Ageing
Life of transformer depends on the
condition of insulation system (kraft
paper and oil) with time under impact of:
Thermal stresses
Electromagnetic stresses
Electro-dynamic stresses
Contamination and natural ageing processes
effecting the tensile strength of paper

Transformer Ageing
Rate of deterioration depends upon the
operating conditions - loading pattern,
incipient faults, maintenance
Condition monitoring also enables to
estimate the residual life of the
transformer.

Poor Quality of
Design or
Materials or
Production or
Maintenance
Processes
results in
failure of transformers

Types of failures
Infant failures: Early life failures are the
result of latent or delivered defects.
- Latent defects are abnormalities that
cause failure, depending on degree of
abnormality and amount of applied
stress.
- Delivered defects are those that escape
test / inspection within the factory
- They are directly proportional to total
defects in the entire processes.

Types of failures
Mid life failures: These are results of
- Freak system disturbances
- Wrong specifications
- Poor maintenance

Types of failures
Old age failures: These are results of
- Ageing of insulation system
- Wear & tear

COMPONENTS CAUSING FAILURE IN

SERVICE
Windings

(29%)

Terminals (29%)
Tank & Dielctric
Fluid (13%)
Onload (13%)
Tapchanger
Magnetic Circuit
(11%)

Other
Accessories

(5%)

Transformer Failures
The main causes of transformer
winding failures are due to:
Moisture contamination and ageing which
cause the transformer internal dielectric
strength to decrease
Damage to the winding or decompression
of the winding under short circuit forces
Damage to the bushings caused by loss of
dielectric strength of materials.

Types of Transformer Faults

Mechanical Faults:
Tank, fittings and accessories
damaged porcelain insulators
clogged oil piping, damaged gaskets
mechanical damage of the windings.

Types of Transformer Faults

Electrical Faults:
Low insulation resistance
Punctured insulation between turns,
sections, windings and various high
potential points.

Types of Transformer Faults

Magnetic Faults:
Abnormal heating
Breakdown of insulation between
core laminations core fixtures and
clamping
Non-uniform distribution of magnetic
flux.

Reliability
BS:4778/1991 Section 3.1 defines reliability
as the characteristic of an item expressed by
the probability that it performs required
conditions for a stated period of time.
Reliability of a transformer is determined by:

Design of transformer
Quality of materials
Quality of manufacturing processes
Operation and maintenance

Why Condition Monitoring?

Early detection of incipient faults
Avoid catastrophic outage
Provide basis for economic repair
decision
Maintenance Management
Maintenance management based on
measurements and trend analysis
Ageing process and residual life

under control
Improve safety to personnel and
environment

Purpose .
Purpose of Condition Monitoring:
Avoid forced outages

Minimize failures
Optimize maintenance costs

Often used techniques

Tests

To detect

DGA

Ageing of oil, paper, hot spot, arcing or PD

Degree of
polymerization

Ageing of insulating paper

Furfural

Ageing of paper insulation

RVM

Water content & ageing of insulation paper

Tan Delta

Dielectric loss in insulation system due to

accumulation of polarizing materials

IR Value &
Accumulation of polarization materials
Polarization Index
FRA

Detects physical movement of windings

PD

Deterioration of insulation system/able to detect some

localized defects

How Condition Monitoring

Monitoring scheme must be:
Simple
Low cost
Without disruption of power

Data must be focused on results to:

Prevent problems
Define the severity of a problem
Provide information to take action
Provide on-line and off-line diagnostics
Enable trending of data
Avoid intrusive maintenance

What to Monitor
Winding resistance measurements
Capacitance and tan
Insulation Resistance (IR) and
Polarization Index (PI) measurements
Oil parameters
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Furfuraldehyde Analysis
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
Partial Discharge (PD) Measurements
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
Recovery Voltage Measurements
Capacitance and tan for bushings

Winding Resistance Measurements

Measure Resistance of all windings
Compare with factory results
Increase in Resistance indicates
Loose joints - Leads to local hot spots and
eventual melting of joints
Worn out contacts Leads to contact
erosion

Capacitance and tan of windings

Measure Capacitance and tan of each pair of
windings and windings with respect to earth
Compare with factory results
It indicates healthiness of insulation system
paper, press-board and oil
Increase in tan indicates deterioration of
insulation system
Contamination
Moisture absorption

Insulation Resistance (IR) and

Polarization Index (PI) measurements
Measure IR and PI values of each winding in
pairs and with respect to earth
Compare with factory results
Lower values indicate poor insulation system

PI (Ratio of 10 min to 1 min)

Less than 1
1.0 1.1
1.1 1.25
1.25 2.0

Condition
Dangerous
Poor
Questionable
Fair

Oil Parameters
Test

Acceptable

Questionable

Unacceptable

BDV KV
(ASTM D-877)

30

29 - 25

< 25

Ability of oil to with

stand electric stress

Interfacial
tension Nm/m
(ASTM D971)

32.0

31.9 - 28

< 27.9

Measures tension
between oil & water
layer. Used to detect
polar contamination
and insulating ageing

Neutralization
No mgKOH/g
(ASTM D974)

< 0.05

0.06 0.10

> 0.10

Acidic compounds
produced by oxidation
of oil and degradation
of solid insulation

Color ASTM D
1500 & 1524

3.5

--

> 3.5

Visual indication of
serious contamination
or degradation

Dissipation
factor At 250C
At 1000C

< 0.1%
< 2.99%

0.1 0.3%
3.0 3.99%

> 0.30%
> 3.0%

Purpose

Healthiness of
insulation system

Oil Parameters
Moisture Content:
Permissible limits of water in oil:
Less than 72.5 KV

25 ppm

72.5 145 KV
Above 145 KV
Resistivity and Tan

20 ppm
10 ppm
IS 335

IS 1866

Resistivity ohm-cm at 900c

35 x 1012

1 x 1012

Tan at 900c

0.002

0.05

Permissible values

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Transformer insulating oils consist of
different hydrocarbon molecules.
Splitting some of the hydrocarbon bonds
occur due to electrical and thermal faults,
forming gases

Hydrogen
Methane (CH4)
Ethane (C2H6)
Ethylene (C2H4)
Acetylene (C2H2).

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Low energy faults (like Partial Discharges)
sufficient to split weak H-C bonds result in
hydrogen as main gas.
Higher temperatures are needed for splitting
C-C bonds.
Higher temperatures result in
Ethane, methane and ethylene at 5000C.
Acetylene requires temperatures 800 - 12000C.

Carbon particles form at 500 to 8000C and are

observed after arcing in oil or around very
hot spots.

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

The condition for formation of key gases by
the degradation of cellulose and oil :
Material

Condition

Key gas

Cellulose

Overheated >1500C

CO, CO2 and H2O

Oil

Overheated 3000C 10000C

Methane (CH4),
Ethane (C2H6)
Ethylene(C2H4)
Organic acids

Oil

Electrical stress (Partial

discharge) Arcing to 10000C

Hydrogen (H2)
Acetylene (C2H2)

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Categories of key gases and general fault conditions
General fault condition

Key gases

Thermal condition
involving the oil

Methane, Ethane, Ethylene,

and small amount of Acetylene

Partial Discharge

Hydrogen, Methane and small

amount of Acetylene and
Ethylene

Sustained arcing

Hydrogen, Acetylene and

Ethylene

Thermal condition
involving the paper

Carbon Monoxide and Carbon

Dioxide

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

CIGRE Method (Electra No. 186, Oct 99) - Key gas concentration and indication:

Characteristic gas Concentration (ppm)

Indication

C2H2

> 20

Power discharge

H2

> 100

Partial discharge

CxHy

> 1000
> 500

Thermal fault

COx

> 10000

Cellulose digradation

Gas Concentration ratios

Ratio

Value

Indication

C2H2/C2H6

>1

Discharge

H2/CH4

> 10

Partial discharge

CO2/CO

> 10
<3

Cellulose overheating
Cellulose degradation

C2H2/H2

> 2 (with C2H2 > 30)

Fault gases from OLTC

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Method recommended by
Electrical Technology Research Association
1000
A

100

A: Arc Discharge
B: Discharge

C2H2
C2H6

10

C: Partial discharge

D: Overheating > 7000C

1.0

or heating + discharge
E: Over heating < 3000C

0.1

F: Over heating
3000C 7000C

0.01

G: Overheating > 7000C

E
0.1

1.0
4
C2H4/C2H6

10

100

1000

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Rogers Method
Ratio
CH4/H2

C2H6/CH4

Evaluation

C2H4/C2H6

C2H2/C2H4

If CH4/H2<0.1, PD
otherwise normal ageing

Slight overheating below 1500C

Slight overheating 150 2000C

Slight overheating 200 3000C

General conductor overheating

Circulating current/overheated joints

Flashover without power flow

OLTC Selector breaking current

Arc with power flow through or

persistent sparking.

Ratios < 1 are designated as 0 ; Ratios > 1 are designated as 1

DGA - IEC : 599 Method

Code of range of
Ratios
C2H2/C CH4/ C2H4/C
H2
2H4
2H6
Ratios of Characteristic gases
< 0.1
0.1 1
1-3
>3

0
1
1
2

1
0
2
2

0
0
1
2

Case No
0
1

Characteristic fault
No fault
PD of low energy density

0
0

0
1

0
0

PD of high energy density

Discharges of low energy (See

note 1)

12

12

Discharge of high energy

Thermal fault of low temp.

<1500C (See bite 2)
Thermal fault of low temp.
range 1503000C. (See note 3)
Thermal fault of medium temp.
300 7000C
Thermal fault of high temp.
> 7000C (See note 4)

6
7
8

Typical examples
Normal ageing
Discharges in gas-filled cavities resulting from
incomplete impregnation or superSaturation or cavitation or high humidity
As above, but leading to tracking or perforation
of solid insulation
Continuous sparking in oil between bad
connections of different potential or to floating
potential. Breakdown coils to earth. Selector
breaking current
Discharges with power follow-through. Arcing
breakdown of oil between windings or coils to
earth. Selector breaking current.
General insulated conductor overheating.
Local overheating of the core due to
concentration of flux. Increasing hot spot
temperatures; varying from small hot spots in
core, shorting links in core, overheating of
copper due to eddy currents, bad contacts/joints
up to core and tank circulating currents

DGA - IEC : 599 Method

Notes:
1. For the purpose of this table, C2H2/C2H4 to rise from a
value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 and the ratio
C2H4/C2H6 from a value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 as
the spark develops in intensity.
2. In this case the gases come mainly from the
decomposition of the solid insulation, this explains the
value of the ratio C2H4/C2H6.
3. This fault condition is normally indicated by increasing
gas concentrations. Ratio CH4/H2 is normally about 1;
the actual value above or below unity is dependent on
many factors such as design of oil preservation
system, actual level of temperature and oil quality.
4. An increasing value of the amount of C2H2 may
indicate that the hot point temperature is higher than
10000C.

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Acceptable limits of Dissolved Gases (Trafo-Tech 2006)

Gases in PPM
Hydrogen
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon
Monoxide
Methane
Ethane
Ethylene
Acetylene

Age of transformer in years

0 - 5 6 - 10 11 - 15 > 15
100
100
100
100
9000 9000
9000 15000
500
700
1500
1500
70
40
40
10

70
40
100
10

200
200
200
20

200
200
200
50

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Limitations of the DGA:
It cannot detect the incipient faults
Values measured are the average values
over a period of time.

On line monitoring of H2 is quite popular.

Sensors have also been developed for
on-line monitoring of CO, CO2 and C2H2.

Furfuraldehyde Analysis
Prolonged action of heat on cellulose paper causes
de-polymerization, which is aggravated by presence of
moisture, forming furanic compounds.
Thermal degradation of oil-paper insulation system
yields different amounts of furanic derivatives, the
most common being 2-furfuraldehyde.
Such deterioration of paper on winding conductor can
be assessed by subjecting the paper to various tests.
Windings of oil filled transformers are not accessible.
Can be accessed after draining oil which is a tedious
process.
The furfural derivatives produced due to degradation
of paper dissolve in oil.

Furfuraldehyde Analysis
Hence, the chemical analysis of transformer oil gives
the evidence of changes that are taking place in the
winding during normal operation.
The main advantage of using furan analysis as a
diagnostic tool is that these compounds are
degradation products specific to paper and can not be
produced by oil.
It has been estimated that new paper under normal
running conditions will generate furfural at the rate of
1.7 ng/g of paper/hour. The rate of production increases
with increasing degree of degradation to 0.5 mg/g of
paper in about 100,000 hours or 15-20 years.

Furfuraldehyde Analysis
Elevated temperatures or presence of
oxygen or water increase this rate. The
limits of detection of furfural are about
0.02 mg/l of oil.
Acceptable levels of furfural in
transformer oil:
<0.1 mg/l acceptable;
>0.1 mg/l questionable and
0.25 mg/l unacceptable.

Degree of Polymerization (DP)

Paper insulation of conductor is subjected
the maximum operating temperature
Life of transformer depends on the extent of
degradation of conductor insulation.
DP closely relates to the mechanical
properties of paper. Life of paper is
considered to have been expired once tensile
strength of paper drops to approximately 50
to 60% of initial tensile strength which is
reached when DP reaches a level of nearly
20% of the initial degree of polymerization.

Degree of Polymerization (DP)

Computation of the percentage
remaining life is calculated by:
% Remnant life = {(DP-200)x100}
(1200-200)
The new paper has a DP of 1200 and
end of life is found to be 200.

Degree of Polymerization (DP)

Another method used is to measure the
specific viscosity of a solution of paper in
cupriethylene diamine. From this, the
intrinsic viscosity of the solution is
calculated by:
ns = (Viscosity of paper solution viscosity
of solvent) / Viscosity of solvent.
The degree of polymerisation is calculated
from the intrinsic viscosity using Martins
tables.

Degree of Polymerization (DP)

The correlation between the furfural
content and the DP value and the
residual life is given by the formulae:
Log (fur) = 1.51 0.0035DP
Log (fur) = -1.83 + 0.058T where T is
the residual life.

Degree of Polymerization (DP)

Correlation between furan concentration and DP
Total furan level (ppb)

Range of DP

Recommended retest
period (months)

100

444-1200

12

101-250

333-443

251-1000

237-332

1001-2500

217-236

>2500

<217

Failure likely

Partial Discharge measurements (PD)

Partial Discharge is a localized electrical
discharge that only partially bridges the
insulation between conductors.
It partially ruptures insulation without
complete flashover or breakdown.
PD is caused by:

Improper processing of transformer

Presence of moisture
Solid impurities in oil
Gas bubbles in oil
Delamination of press-boards
Voids between glued components
Bad connection of electrostatic shields

Partial Discharge measurements (PD)

Location of PD is by: (IEC: 60270)
Acoustic Detection
Electrical location
Narrow band method or Radio Interference
Voltage method (Range 10 KHz).
Wide-band method measured in pico-coulombs
(pC) (Range 50 to 400 KHz)

Identifying location of PD needs skill

and expertise.

Partial Discharge measurements (PD)

PD Level and their Critical Stages (as per CIGRE WG 12.18)
Classification to be developed to support caution and
alarm levels

Critical Stages and Alarms

Dielectric Condition

PD Levels

Caution
Levels

Alarm levels

Defect-free

10-50 pC

Normal deterioration

< 500 pC

First warning
signal:
q >500-1000
pC

First fault
signal:
q >> 2500 pC

Poor impregnation

1000 2000 pC

Long term destructive

ionization

2500 pC in paper
>10,000pC in oil

Large (3-5 mm in dia)

air/gas bubbles in oil

1000 10,000 pC

Paper moisture upto 3-4%

and relevant level in oil

2000-4000 pC and
reduction of PD inception
voltage by 20%

Signal of
defective
condition:
q > 1000
2500 pC

Critical
condition:
q >> 1,00,000
10,00,000
pC

Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

Dielectric faults may be caused by
mechanical displacements occurring during
transportation,
short circuit forces or
inadequate processing during manufacturing
causing shrinkage of windings during service.

Such changes can not be detected by DGA or

any other tests.
FRA is easy to perform in the field and
provide reliable indication of mechanical
condition of transformer.

Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

The transformer is isolated from the system
and the impedance or admittance of the
transformer is measured as a function of the
frequency (2 KHz or 20 KHz or 2 MHz).
This gives a fingerprint of the transformer.
This test is repeated over time and the
fingerprints are compared.

Recovery Voltage Measurements

RVM method is used to detect the condition of
oil-paper insulation and the water content in the
insulation.
It relies on the principle of the interfacial polarization
of composite dielectric materials, i.e., the build-up of
space charges at the interfaces of oil-paper
insulation due to impurities and moisture.
A dc voltage is applied to the insulation for a time.
The electrodes are then short-circuited for a short
period of time after which the short-circuit is
removed to examine the rate of the voltage build-up
or the polarization profile. The time constant
associated with this peak recovery voltage gives an
indication of the state of the insulation.

Recovery Voltage Measurements

The main parameters derived from the
polarization spectrum are the maximum value
of the recovery voltage, the time to peak
value and the initial rate of rise of the
recovery.
This method is very controversial as to its
suitability for direct measurement of moisture
content in the oil, due to the strong
dependence of the results on the geometry,
construction of the insulation system of the
transformer.

Capacitance and tan

for Bushings
Capacitance and tan measurements of
condenser bushings give indication of the
condition of the insulation in the bushing.
A new bushing will have a tan value less
than 0.5%
Capacitance value of bushing in service need
to be compared with factory test result value
for deciding the extent of degradation.

Capacitance and tan

for Bushings
High Tan delta (between0.007 and 0.01):
Ingress of moisture in bushing insulation
Very High Tan delta (Beyond 0.01):
High humidity, Strong ageing of insulation
Low Tan delta: Weak Potential connection
High Capacitance: Partial Breakdown.

Suggested periodicity of diagnostic tests

Test
IR/PI, BDV, Tan of oil and
winding capacitance & Tan

Periodicity
One year

Bushing capacitance & Tan

Dissolve Gas Analysis
Winding resistance
Water ppm

Half year

To conclude

Quality and Reliability are a measure of the

availability of the transformer for continuous
operation throughout its stipulated life time.

It is highly dependent upon the design and

manufacture of the transformer, its materials
and construction. It is also dependent on
proper erection & commissioning and
subsequent maintenance at site.

In essence, it is a function of the interactions

between the transformer and system.