Formal language in written and

spoken text
BUILD ON UNDERSTANDING OF WRITTEN AND SPOKEN MODES
TYPICAL STYLISTIC FEATURES OF FORMAL TEXTS IN WRITTEN AND
SPOKEN MODES PARTICULARLY IN LITERATURE AND THE PUBLIC
DOMAIN
EXAMINE A RANGE OF TEXT TYPES (LEGAL DOCUMENTS,
BUREAUCRATIC POLICIES, OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS, INFORMATIONAL
PROSE, LITERATURE, SPEECHES, LECTURES, OATHS, LITURGIES,
PERFORMANCES AND MONOLOGUES)
THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FORMAL TEXTS:
REINFORCING SOCIAL DISTANCE AND AUTHORITY
ESTABLISHING EXPERTISE
PROMOTING SOCIAL HARMONY AND NEGOTIATING SOCIAL TABOOS
CLARIFYING, MANIPULATING OR OBFUSCATING

Levels of formality
Remember that levels of formality
operate on a continuum.
Frozen style
Formal Style
Consultative Style
Casual Style
Intimate Style

Madam Chair, Mr Chairman

Sir, Madam

Mrs Jones, Mr Jackson,

Jonesie, Jacko

Darling, snookums
These styles may depend on a
range of social and situational
factors.

Formal Text Types

Spoken

Information

lecture, news article, media interview,

announcement, report, proclamation (public
announcement).

Instruction

Briefing, verdict, instruction, seminar

Persuasion

Political speech, homily, commercial, debate,

appeal

Entertainment

Play, address, docudrama, narrative

Ceremony/Ritual

Retirement speech, opening/closing address,

eulogy, vote of thanks, wedding toast, Miranda
rights

Formal Text Types ; Written

FUNCTION

TEXT TYPES

Information

Professional letter, official document,

road sign, insurance policy, catalogue,
encyclopaedia, dissertation, broadsheet
news

Instruction

Manual, questionnaire, memo, warrant,

writ, judgement

Persuasion

Editorial, poster, political flyer, debate,

advertorial

Entertainment

Novel, poem, short story, feature article,

editorial

Ceremony/ritual

Obituary, written prayer, memorial

plaque, formulaic sections of legal
contract, inscriptions.

Plain English Movement

Social and political movements in the 1970s pushed for clear and simple language for
average person and are evidence of a new linguistic thinking.
The Plain English movement attempted to redress inequities in our societies those
struggling with the complexities of law, government, banks, insurance.
Political correctness aimed to ensure a fair go for all by getting speakers to focus on
the claims of different groups. It prescribed language for ethnicity, race, gender,
sexual preference, appearance, religion, disability.
With growing egalitarianism and social democracy the solidarity and intimacy
functions of language are gaining over the status/distance functions. THIS DROVE
THE PLAIN ENGLISH MOVEMENT SO THAT PEOPLE WOULD NOT BE
EXCLUDED FROM AREAS SUCH AS LAW, POLITICS ETC. TO PROMOTE
EQUALITY.
Influences: Journalese and broadcasting English has influenced change in English
Activities:
1. Read extract LL 93: Try to convert it into a modern version.
What features contribute to its formality?
2. Plain English: p.151, question 1
Formal Language: p.156, question 5

The Style Shift

Less formal: short snappy loosely connected clauses
Not likened to the formality of print media
Shift toward everyday spoken language evidenced by the

informality of television and radio

Received pronunciation no longer a common trait (BBC
Accented English)
Resulted in a shift of national identity
LL p 90 Personal ads register.
Parody of the formal register-what features of formal language
does Blackadder make fun of?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOSYiT2iG08ko
LL p95 Queens Christmas speech: Identify formal
language features and changes in features over the
decades. p.156, question 3

Parody of the formal register-what features of formal language does Blackadder make fun of?

Codification changes, people/speakers that drive

change
Elevated lexemes
Complex clause structures
MAKING FUN OF FORMAL FEATURES OF
LANGUAGE

Social Functions of Formal Texts

Reinforcing social distance and authority

Establishing expertise (jargon)
Promoting social harmony and negotiating social

taboos (euphemisms and political correctness)

Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating (scientific
terms for all three, specialised jargon, euphemisim)

Coherence and Cohesion

Activity: Solve problem texts (VATE) and brainstorm

the appropriate metalanguage. -Both concepts are
interrelated and connect to the question: how does the
text make sense?
Coherence: relates to the implicit logical
connectedness within a text including a reliance on
inference; the focus is on semantic relationships;
Cohesion: relates to the explicit linguistic devices that
are used to signal relationships between different parts
of the text; the focus is on lexical and grammatical
relationships; have more a & c references

Notes on previous slide

There needs to be logical connections paragraphs

need to flow
Dialogue from

COHERENCE
If a text communicates its message clearly and
concisely, it can be said to have coherence.
The order in which information is presented in a
text is an important factor in determining how
coherent it is likely to be for a reader.
What is coherent for one reader, may not be
coherent for another.

try this
Put these sentences in their correct order.
1 But her brother, lying opposite, filled his cheeks with air and
blew hard.
2 He cant get out; he cant get a hold of it, Morvenna cried.
3 The ant fell back to the pit bottom, and in a moment the
little fury of jaws burst out at it, seized it, vanished again.
4 Only a flurry of sand in the bottom of the little pit marked for
a few seconds the ants last struggle.
5 She thrust suddenly with the end of a twig, trying to push the
ant up the shifting sand slope of the pit.
What clues did you use to help you decide on the correct order?

Coherence what to look for

Information is clearly and logically organised
The layout is clear and consistent
The text is organised, relevant and clear
May use headings and sub-headings to signpost the way
Paragraphs deal with each topic separately
Extra information in brackets or subordinated in pairs of dashes

to explain jargon or technical terms, or to separate asides from the

main information
Sequencing of sentences develops ideas in logical way
Assumed knowledge / inference readers can make assumptions
based on their prior or shared knowledge
Relevance a lexical set / semantic field that is consistent throughout

Which is more coherent?

There will be a suspension of the exchange
program by the Principal until her re-evaluation
of it has been completed.

The Principal will suspend the exchange program

until she has re-evaluated it.

COHESION and cohesive ties

It isnt enough though for a text to be coherent, it also

needs to show cohesion.

Understanding a text depends not only on understanding
the different ideas, but also how they relate to each other.
Interpreting one idea depends on successfully
interpreting another.
Writers achieve cohesion in their text by relating different
ideas using a range of language devices or
cohesive ties.
These link the ideas in the text to create meaning for the
reader; they signpost the text for the reader.

A text may be cohesive without necessarily being coherent:

Cohesion does not spawn coherence.

"Cohesion is determined by lexically and grammatically overt
relationships, whereas coherence is based on semantic
relationships."
Coherence vs. cohesion
I bought a Ford. The car in which President Wilson rode down the
Champs Elysees was black. Black English has been widely
discussed. The discussions between the presidents ended last week.
A week has seven days. Every day I feed my cat. Cats have four legs.
This brilliant sentence by Enkvist (1978) is an example of a highly
cohesive text which is nevertheless incoherent.

Cohesion What to look for

A cohesive text hold together sensibly
Lexical patterning repetition of lexical items throughout a text
Phonological patterning makes words seem as though they belong
together
Syntactic patterning repetition of clause structures
Pronouns
Referencing / substitution point to other parts of the text this and it
Synonymy repeating ideas with different words
Antonymy making comparisons across the text
Collocations
Semantic field / lexical set like lexical repetition, shows ideas are
linked
Information flow end focus and front focus
Linking adverbs and conjunctions connect to other ideas in the text e.g.
similarly

Anaphoric and Cataphoric Reference

Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers

back to other ideas in the text for its meaning.

Eg. I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.'
She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no need to repeat her
name.
Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers
to another later in the text and you need to look forward
to understand. It can be compared with anaphoric
reference, which means a word refers back to another
word for its meaning.
Eg. 'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was
open'.

Deixis

Im going to get some wine from that shop over

there.
Substitution
Ive got a pencil. Do you have one?
Ellipsis
Where did you see the car?In the street

Correlative conjunctions
Both and (addition): while BOTH slang AND

swearing are derived by some, others argue hat they

contribute to language in connotative ways
Not only but also (addition)
Either nor (alternative)
Neither nor (althernative)
Whether.or (condition): whether the use of
Standard English or a non standard variety is
appropriate depends on the variables associated with
situational context

Activity
Identify the types of cohesive tiespronoun reference, deixis,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunctionin the
following sentences. Make a table with the headingsword or
phrase, cohesive tie and item tie refers to.
1 I went to Bali last year and I want to go there again soon.
2 Thats my favourite pizza too.
3 What about this end here, though?
4 Those are nice too.
5 Subaru four-wheel drive. Gripping stuff.
6 Jim caught a cold because he fell in the creek.
7 Feels right.
8 Equally important, however, is the way buildings and spaces relate together.

Features of formal language

Dependent on the the situational and cultural context of the

exchange
Variables may include formality at work to the pub with
friends.
Standard language in writing is likened to the uniform
practice, especially in formal written language.
It is less ambiguous, more expansive and cohesive, makes
explicit aspects of context can be left out in informal speech
and writing.
Users of formal language are more likely to consider how
their audience may interpret it, be more conscious of the
effectiveness and the impact of their language and pay more
attention to information flow (ordered).

Common features include:

Registers have their own distinctive vocabulary
Elaborately stylized expressions and flamboyant imagery (food)
Jargon
Metaphors
Long and extremely complex sentences (legal)
Relative pronouns
Complex clauses (embedded)
Heavily punctuated (to save space in legalese)
Passive constructions
Absence of Anaphoric pronouns (to avoid ambiguity)
Lexical repetition
Archaic features eg lack of punctuation(ornamental)
Linguistic ritual

Examples of Formal Text Types

Focus on the lexical and grammatical aspects.

(VATE)
LL 99 101 Range of different formal
varieties
Legal English
The language of wine description
An email message
Political speech
Police v Butler
The language of TV chefs

Activities
Bring in written texts to create a class folio of texts to

be examined
Pay particular attention to literary texts great for
looking at stylistic features but also looking a shifting
degrees of formality
Speeches are very good for syntactic patterning
Poetry great for phonological patterning
Make sure you look at formal public documents
(contracts, policy papers etc) for stylistic features

Phonological Patterning LL 103-107

Sound symbolism is crucial in formal language:
Alliteration
Assonance
Onomatopoeia
Rhythm
Rhyme
Consonance
Activities:
1. LL extracts p106 and 107 : read and evaluate formality.
2. Sound symbolism: p. 157, question 6

Phonesthemes- When speakers associate sound sequences with particular meanings.

Phonesthemes symbolise certain meanings (though it's often difficult to pin these down).

Voiced stops ([b], [d], [g])

Voiceless stops ([p], [t], [k]) seem to carry greater connotations of speed
Fricatives (like ([f], [v], [s], [z]) connote greater speed than stops ([p], [b], [t], [d])
Voiced fricatives (like [v], [z]) are more effective than voiceless ones (like [f], [s])

MLK I Have A Dream

Consonance is a kind of harmony produced by the recurrent use of sounds in a sequence of words.
the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners
"justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."

Alliteration involves sequences of words that begin with the same consonant sound.
It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned.

Lexical choice
1. Read the preface to Samuel Johnsons dictionary. Highlight the formal lexical choices.Pg 91

LL. Lexemes depict the theme and idea of a text

What distinguishes the writing from today is the elevated style.
The formality is immediately obvious through the lexical choice.
This lexical choice is classical in style-big words made bigger with Greek and Latin
morphology.
2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOSYiT2iG08
Felicitous

appropriate

Latin felicitatem

Penultimate

Second last

Latin penultima

Sojourn

A temporary stay

variant of Old French sejorn

Terminated

ended

Latin terminatus

Categorisation

Arrange into class

Latin categoria

Vocabulary

Stock of words

Latin vocabularium

Lexical choice and Morphological Patterning p107

The Style Hierarchy

Romance and classically inspired vocabulary is part of the elevated style of modern-day formal
expression.
Lexical choice:
Hierarchy of style-words from different origins have strikingly different social and stylistic
connotations. (The carpet analogy used in LL p107)
1.
English (Germanic origin) shorter, more concrete, stylistically neutral, fundamental
everyday vocabulary. Also includes grammatical words a and the and the four-letter
words.
2.
French lexical items of refinement and nuance
3.
Latin/Greek-words with connotations of learning and science and abstraction
Eg. Quack-Doctor-Physician
Ask-question-interrogate
Rise-mount-ascend
The English=colloquial, The French= more formal, The Latin=more elevated still. Eg pg 108 LL
. Germanic gives us the nouns while the romance languages gives us the
adjectives.
. Certain semantic fields will be characterised by their relative formality. Subjects that are
taboo mean that obscure vocabulary are often used to describe them. Eg poor impoverished
Activity 7. page 157 , taboo will have elevated lexemes to describe them politically correct

Word formation processes:

Collocations- two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right" .
Idioms-fixed expressions that convey their meanings as a whole.
Creative word formations:

1. affixation (includes neologisms) LL extract 110. In formal language,

the morphology is typically classical in origin, drawing especially on highbred affixes from languages like Latin and
Greek, considerable sophistication still attaches to the morphology drawn from the classical languages, they

confer a certain dignity.

2. Compounding-to combine two (or more) free-standing morphemes; LL. 111 case
study
3. Acronyms-are words formed from the initials of other words, serving either as proper names or
they are specific to the specialist registers of certain occupations.

Activity Word formation processes: p. 157, questions 8,

9, 13 and 14

Semantic Features
Denotation/Connotation-because connotations are related to real

life experiences, they will always vary from individual to

individual.
Figurative Language-expressive use of language that employs
words and phrases in a non-literal way to gain clarity and vividness.
Metaphor-refers to something by using language expressions
that are normally associated with something else. It involves the
comparison of two items where there exists some kind of
relationship. This r/ship may be a semantic connection eg
worm=someone sleazy, slimy, someone who crawls.
Simile-comparison of two items in a much more obvious way.
like as eg black as ink.
Personification/animation-human qualities attributed to
inanimate things. The wind whistled.
Hyperbole-exaggerated or ornate language for the purpose of
emphasis.

Extract: Case study: Dressing up the goods LL. 114

Irony-words that express a meaning that is opposite of their
literal meaning.
Oxymoron-incongruous or contradictory words. Eg deafening
silence.
Pun-playing with words or phrases that have more than one
possible meaning for humour.
Lexical ambiguity-words or sentences that can be interpreted
in more than one way. Advertisers use this to their advantage.
Case study: The Ambiguity of the infomercial LL 116
Semantic features: p.159, questions 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19

Syntactic patterning in formal language

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Coordination (when clauses are equal)/subordination

(implies clauses that are not equal): LL 117 and Case study:
Subordination in Bureaucratese LL p118
Passive Case study: Passives in Advertising Jargon LL 119
Nominalisation LL p119-120 Case Study: LL p121
Antithesis, parallelism and listing LL: 121 -122; Case study
LL: p122
Sentence types LL: 124 Case study
Syntactic patterning: p. 163, questions 20, 22, 23 and 24

parallelism
Parallelism involves the repetition of a series of grammatical structures, most

often for stylistic reasons that underline the semantic structure of the text
Parallelism may also emphasise the similarities or differences between each
grammatical sequence in the overall construction
In Earl Spencers eulogy at the funeral of his sister Diana, Princess of Wales, he
began with these words:
I stand before you today the representative of a family in grief, in a country in
mourning before a world in shock
(rule of three: poetic, lends a beautiful rhythm/symmetry to it stylistic
reason: sense of poetic rhythm semantic structure: emphasising similarities
of the way people are reacting to the death of the princess: family (intimate),
country (local), world (distant) all have grief in common. UNDERSCORING A
SHARED GRIEF not only is he in grief, but so to is the rest of the world.
ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION: prepositional phrasing

Here is a noun phrase, the representative of a family in

grief, followed by two prepositional phrases, in a

country in mourning and before a world in shock
The parallelism construction is the prepositional
phrasing in each of these segments. Each includes a
determiner and a noun followed by a prepositional
phrase that gives us additional information about the
head noun
Earl Spencer chose a highly effective set of parallel
structures that highlighted the similarity of feelings
experiences by those closes to this sister, the people

passives
If the subject is the doer of the action, the sentence is active
If the subject is the receiver of the action, the sentence is

passive
The boy ate the apple (active)/the apple was eaten by the
boy (passive)
I ate the pizze (active)/the pizza was eaten by me (passive)

Move the pizza to the beginning of the sentence

Ad the verb to be in the appropriate form (am, is, were, was)
Change the tense of the verb from simple past to past participle
You can leave out the subject
The pizza was eaten by me

Why use the passive voice

It highlights the effect of the action, rather than the

person or thing that did it: the message was conveyed

by the courier
It can delfect from thte person doing the action: a
mistake was made that lost the company $750,000 for
the company (by me )
It can elevate the tone as an agentless action often has
more authority: a decision was made elevates that
tone
It can improve the impact: never in the field of human
conflict was so much owed by so many to so few

Information Flow
How speakers and writers package their messages; how
they provide cues to help their audience interpret a text
Formulaic guideposts in written and spoken texts
through lexicon and grammatical devices
3 principles:
Given information comes before the new: LL p125
Cohesive texts: topic before comment: LL 127
Front focus: initial position for extra focus: LL 127
Much to learn, you still have.
Information Flow: p.169, question 25

given before new

GIVEN information is information that is already

familiar to the reader it can refer to something that

has appeared earlier in the text, or it can be assumed
as common knowledge
NEW information is what drives the discourse
forward its where writers expect their audiences to
pay special attention

GIVEN information comes before NEW

Since the NEW information is the more important,

this basic organisation means that we want

important in formation at the end of the sentence
The beginning of a sentence is reserved for old and
unsurprising material (GIVEN information )
information that HAS LOWER COMMUNICATIVE
VALUE can be represented by deictic expressions,
references, pronoun etc.

There construction
The there acts as a dummy subject pronoun in order

to allow the new and exciting information to appear

later

Anaphoric reference
Pronouns or expressions that refer back to

something that has been mentioned

an then there were these Azkaban guards everyone
kept talking about. They seemed to scare most people
senseless

OLD vs NEW
Information that is new, interesting or out of the

ordinary is typically a lot longer than old, routine or

unremarkable information
Given information doesn't need to be included in as
great a detail (pronouns)
Another way of giving Given information less
prominence is by totally omitting it (ellipsis)
Another way of giving Given information less
prominence is by substituting a word or words with
another (substitution)

Ellipsis
Have you read Harry potter?

no I havent
No, I havent read it
No I havent read Harry Potter

Ellipsis leads to economy of expression being efficient,

just new information, omitting irrelevant information

substitution
I dont have a pen. Do you have one

Front focus vs End focus

The ends of sentences are important for communication

they contain what is of special significance

However, beginnings of sentences can be positions of
special focus
By bringing important information forward, it is given
greater prominence it gains the audiences attention

To be or not to be; that is the question

Shakespeare has used front-focus in his famous quote as he is placing

the information at the beginning of the sentence to give it more
prominence and directs the audiences attention to his main point,
which is, the internal struggle of the character as he wrestles with his
identity.

Fronting
What you say doesnt matter bringing you to the front

= what you say is irrelevant, YOURE irrelevant, front

focus/ it doesnt matter what you say
Fronting moves constituents that are normally position
late in the clause up to the front
The most usual type of fronting involves the movement of
adverbial phrases

he unscrewed the ink bottle slowly and carefully

slowly and carefully he unscrewed the ink bottle this emphasises
the need for delicacy when unscrewing the lid or emphasises the
careful nature of the character SHIFTS THE FOCUS TO HOW
THE BOTTLE IS BEING SCREWED NOT BY WHOM

extraposition
If a subject of a sentence is an entire clause it can be

too much information to have so early

That Hagrid though a biting book would come in useful struck

Harry as ominous
It struck Harry as ominous that hagrid thought a biting book
would come in useful

Celft constructions
Clefting has the effect of dividing an original

sentence into two clauses as a way to shift the focus

of interest

Most unluckily, uncle Vernon had answered the call

Most unluckily, it had been Uncle Vernon who had answered
the call
To clauses are formed, the first introduced by an empty
subject (it) and a form of to be, followed by the focus of
interest

Looking at special grammatical structures in

information flow: LL 128 -132
Passives;
there-construction;
cleft constructions;
Fronting;
left dislocation
Right dislocation
Cohesion and coherence (synonyms, antonyms,

deictic expressions, anaphoric, cataphoric and

inference)

The importance of writing

Written discourse tends to be more formal than oral

discourse however this is also contextual and situational.

High language is by no means confined to literate
societies.
Look at the history of English: LL: 134 135. Spoken and
written was the equivalent due to the audience of
language who were the educated elite. There was not a
huge gap between writing and speaking as there is today.
The correct usage of words was essential for
understanding, considering spelling, grammar.
The privileged position of writing these days is
understandable. This comes from the rich literacy
tradition. It has permanence and authority.

Social Functions of Formal Texts

Reinforcing social distance and authority- negative

need politeness
Establishing expertise- jargon
Promoting social harmony and negotiating social
taboos- euphemisms, political correctness,
discriminatory language
Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating-doublespeak

Degree of indirectness

Lend me a pen.
Can you lend me a pen?
Could you lend me a pen?
Would you lend me a pen?
Would you be so kind as to lend me a pen?
Would it be possible for you to lend me a pen?
Do you think you might be able to lend me a pen?
Is there any chance of borrowing a pen?
I seem to have left my pencil case at home

Establishing expertise
Examine jargon of specialised fields (medicine, law,

education, ICT etc)

Construct comparisons between jargon use and slang
use consider overt and covert norms
Consider a range of jargonbased text types
School reports are good to consider:
Establish teacher expertise
Avoid face threats through negative politeness
strategies
Possible use of doublespeak

Consider the following school report

John did not do well in English this Semester, mainly because
he is lazy. He sits and chats in class instead of working, and
distracts others from working as well. The work he did complete
was of a substandard quality. For example, his essay on To Kill a
Mockingbird was babyish certainly not at Year 10 standard.
His oral presentation was ill-prepared and boring, and did not
engage the class. Furthermore, he showed little knowledge of
the issue he was presenting. I strongly advise John to pull his
finger out, otherwise he will fail English in Semester 2 as well.
Mr. Drongo,
Year 10 English teacher.

Promoting social harmony and

negotiating social taboos
Introduce the euphemism treadmill
Consider policy documents that deal with social

taboos (language policies of broadcasting codes,

institutional style guides etc)
Consider political correctness and principals of non
discriminatory language

Some handy definitions

Discriminatory Language: language that creates or reinforces a

hierarchy of difference between people (generally targets facets
of identity like sex and gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality,
age, political or religious beliefs and physical, intellectual or
psychological disability). ASPECTS OF IDENTITY usually the things we cant change and have no

control over = interesting that people choose to discriminate against people because of these aspects
Taboo Language: language that deals with topics and behaviour
which are viewed as negative in a given culture. Taboo subjects
frequently include death, bodily parts, functions and processes.
Taboo Language also includes terms or expressions which may
give offense, including expletives, blasphemy, and abuse of
minorities.
Political Correctness: is expressed through the use of words and
phrases that encourage an attitude of tolerance and acceptance
of a variety of life experiences which formerly were sometimes
considered less acceptable. avoidance of discriminatory language = acknowledges that language
has power inclusivity and promotes social harmony people who think that political correctness
bars their freedom are basically saying that they have no right to discriminate and be racist.

Taboo
The Language of Good Manners
THE NAME ORIGINALLY CAME FROM TONGAAND REFERRED TO BEHAVIOURS
CONSIDERED DANGEROUS TO SOCIETY- THE
CONSEQUENCES OF BREAKING TABOO WERE
THEREFORE LITERALLY LIFE AND DEATH.
THESE DAYS TABOO REFERS TO SOCIAL
SANCTIONS PLACED ON BEHAVIOUR THAT IS
REGARDED AS DISTASTEFUL OR IMPOLITE.`
HTTP://
WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=TPCTGNYA3
DY

Notes on video
HER CONTENTION IS THAT EUPHEMISMS ARE GOOD HELP TO CONCEAL EMBARASSMENT
Linguistic deoderents, smoke screens, the fig leaves of our language (they help us cover up the embarrassing bits) euphemisms as a way of expressing taboo

topics
Functions: politeness, hiding skeletons in cupboards (avoid the harsh realities of life)
Skeletons in cupboards die and kill: have lived, gone to sleep, moved on, passed away
1900s: legs were considered taboo trousers
Monosyllable: c word
Deliberatly befuddling language turns the loss of human life inot collateral damage: give an appearance of solidity to pure air, to make murder respectable
Upgrade and inflate: praire oyesters and fried (culinary
Life insurance = insurance for when your dead
Everything is cosmetic: shopping centre
Its all dishonest media is superb for euphemism, doesnt say it like it is
The obscenity lies in the actual words themselves pungency of them can often bring down other words
Cock: haycocks =
ATTENTION RABBITS
Fcuk
Nebulusness: the groin provides the fig leaf anything in the general vicinity: can happen
Ambiguity of slang like fanny and prat GENITAL FLIP FLOP
Tiptoe around any sensitive topic
Older is not as old as old ARE ORANGES ARE SWEETER PROVIDE A COMPARISON AND GIVE THE SELLER A GETAWAY
Language can work to influence our memory and perceptions send a certain image and signal
Euphemisms are doomed they will diminish, and next gen will learn them as the direct topic one generation will apply a euphmism to a taboo but the

taboo will eventually contaminate the euphemism

FNRENCH IS A LONG SOURCE OF DEODARISING ENGLISH
The longer the word has been existing, the more the euphemism decays: SMELL stink and stench were good odour was French and was considered a nice

word but now has negative connotations

Chronic contagion speak the unspeakable
The more sever the taboo, the longer the chain of euphemisms
We are all guilty of embellishing information: structure and words

Nature and Function of TabooLL, 136

Taboo is set by social parameters
Age
Sex
Education
Social status etc.
Focuses on traditions of etiquette
Sex
Death
Excretion
Drunkedness,
Blasphemy
Make a list of the euphemisms for dead in the following sketch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vuW6tQ0218

Notes on excretion video

The regular call of nature
Relief
Predictable result (dont worry, youre not gonna shit your

pants)
Motherload I just dropped
Birthed a creamy bohemian
Porcelain prison
Little astronaut
Lay a brick
Your business

Notes on death video

Resting
Stone cold
Stunned
Deceased
Tired
Shagged out
Demised
Pining
Passed on
No more
Ceased to be
Expired
Gone to meet its maker
Late
Stiff
Bereft of life
Rest in peace
Pushing
Choir of invisibles
Ex-parrot
Pushing up the daisies
After a long squall
Pining for the feords
EUPHEMISMS ARE INNOVATIVE

Cont
Euphemism-the polite thing to do, avoid offence SUPPORT

POSITIVE/NEGATIVE FACE NEEDS (this is how they negotiate

social harmony)
Dysphemism-breaking the social conventions
To classify language under either of these headings depends on
context-the words themselves are neither nasty or sweet.
Dependent on opinions and attitudes. Eg. Cark it can be either
euphemistic-detracting from the seriousness of death-or
dysphemistic, as coming from a doctor about a loved one it would
be offensive. Intimacy can be marked by normally offensive
language. Context will determine if a word will be euphemistic or
dysphemistic
Negotiating social harmony LL p 140

Changes over time.

Notions about what is considered taboo will change across cultures

and across time. Since the 70s (cultural revolution) restrictions have
loosened on sex, death, drunkedness and blasphemy- evident on what
is now permissible on national TV domain is much less
conservative now
However, what was permissible in the 19th century is not only
considered dysphemistic now but also against the law. Since anti
discrimination laws of the 1980s language users are much more
conscious of language used to discuss gender, sexuality, disability and
race.
my brother is disabled the disability is their identity
my brother has a disability saying there is more to the person
than his disability
SPASTIC: was an accurate term but now is a negative connotation
Homophobia: homosexuality was illegal until 1992

Euphemism
Unmentionables, unhintables, crumbs, c*** (visual

representation), intimacy, gosh

Mild, vague, indirect ways of expressing
something that due to social conventions are taboo
(should not be talked about directly).
Polite language.
People are often judged by their adherence to these
societal norms.
Might be viewed as rude, crass, racist, sexist if did not
use euphemisms (promote negative face needs)

Techniques
Metaphor to be with Jesus
Circumlocution- terminological inexactitude eg. A

PRUNELAX euphemism: predictable overnight

solution
Remodelling-sugar (instead of shit)
Clipping-drat (oh drats)
Abbreviation-pee, s-word, f-word

Tip-toeing around taboo

Violations meant dire consequences. Euphemisms

was literally a matter of life and death.

Selective taboo on bad manners; social sanctions
placed on behaviour regarded as distasteful within a
given social context.
In the western world it rests on traditions of etiquette
and set by social parameters such as age, sex,
education, social status and the like.
Euphemisms become the polite thing to do
Taboo is restricted to certain topics related to sex,
death, excretion, drunkenness and blasphemy. LL, 136

Euphemism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SOBdkwDgPo

Euphemisms are a polite expression used in place of words or

phrases that otherwise might be considered harsh or unpleasant to

hear.
Euphemisms are used regularly, and there are many examples in
every day language.
Examples can be wide-ranging
19th century moral code created negative words: inexpressibles,
unmentionables LL: 137
Euphemisms are mild, vague, indirect ways of expressing something
that, due to social conventions or for other reasons, are taboo.
Techniques for euphemisms include metaphors: LL 137
Activity: Euphemism PPT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuEQixrBKCc

Notes of video
Doing it circumlocution, but taboo has

contaminated it and is now moving towards

dysphemism
Why was this ad banned?
ITS CONTAMINATED its become dysphemistic

Notes on George Carlin video

Our use of euphemisms is getting worse
WWI - Shell shock (simple honest direct language): stress associated with being constantly open to combat
WWI - Battle fatigue: nicer word than shock
War in korea operational exhaustion
War in Vietnam post traumatic stress disorder
Vetereans would have gotten the attention they need
Soft language takes the life out of language
Dental appliances
Dump landfill
Partly cloudy partly sunny
Use cars previously owned transportation
Occasional irregularity
Economically disadvantaged poor
Negative cash flow position broke
Redundancies fired
Smart, greedy, white people have developed a language to conceal sins not about embarrassment or awkwardness like Kate Burridge says,

but about deliberate obfuscation and manipulation to avoid the truth politicians, military (death, civilian casualties: collateral damage)

Grotesque enough evasion

Hearing impaired, visually impaired, minimally exceptional (stupid), those with severe appearance deficits, senior citizens
BLOODLESS, LIFELESS, NO PULSE IN ONE OF THEM
90 years young FEAR OF AGING have to use antonym
Older sounds like it lasts a little longer
I wont have to die, Ill pass away, or Ill expire like a magazine subscription
some of this language makes me want to vomit an involuntary personal protein spill

Types of Euphemisms
1. To Soften an Expression
Some euphemisms are used in order to make a blunt

or unpleasant truth seem less harsh.

1. Passed away instead of died
2. Correctional facility instead of jail
3. Departed instead of died
4. Differently-abled instead of handicapped or
disabled
5. Fell off the back of a truck instead of stolen

2. To Be Polite
Other euphemisms are used to take the place of words

or phrases you might not want to say in polite company.

Examples of euphemisms that fall into this category
include:
1. Adult entertainment instead of pornography
2. Adult beverages instead of beer or liquor
3. Au natural instead of naked
4. Big-boned instead of heavy or overweight
5. Portly instead of heavy or overweight
6. Chronologically-challenged instead of late

Identify the Euphemism in the following phrases:

Friendly fire
Economical with the truth
Ethnic cleansing
To powder ones nose
To let someone go (employer to employee)
Pre-owned
Senior citizen
To sleep with someone
To spend a penny
Gone to meet his maker
To downsize a company
Vertically challenged

Dysphemism
Harsh, offensive expressions substituted for milder ones in

order to attach negative connotations.

Antonym of Euphemism
Often occurs in taboo areas
Eg Nazi=fascist-authority. Fuck=treat unfairly
LL: p. 139 Fuck, shit
Aust. Men still use or are more likely to use dysphemism
than women.
Australia has a love-affair with bad language
Motives: violating social conventions on polite language,
sense of egalitarianism, anti-authority, social revolutions
of the 60s and 70s, general trend towards informality

Euphemisms to be Impolite-Dysphemisms
In some cases, euphemisms are intentionally a grosser or less pleasant way

of saying something. These are usually used when people are being sarcastic
or trying to make light of a serious subject or make it seem less serious.
Examples include:
1. Batting for the other side instead of homosexual
2. Bit the big one instead of died
3. Bit the farm instead of died
4. Cement shoes instead of dead
5. Bit the dust instead of died
6. Croaked instead of dead
7. Kick the bucket instead of die
Activities: Taboos (euphemism/dysphemism): p. 169, questions 27,
28, 29, 30 and 31

Political correctness
Likened to Euphemisms with attitude: to help remove

the stigma of negative social stereotypes by compelling

its audience to go beyond the simple content of the
message and challenge prejudices embodied in
language.
Includes gender-neutral pronouns
Language used to describe historical roots instead of
colour, ethnicity or genetics
Face-saving devices
History of the term political correctness LL. 148 150
Political correctness: p. 175, questions 34, 35 and
36

Principles of NonDiscriminatory
Language
Using language in an inclusive way, which shows respect for, and
sensitivity towards, all members of the community.
As well as avoiding offence, it is about treating each other with
dignity and as equal members of an integrated community.
Terms disappear, reemerge and are revised. Everyone needs to
be mindful of changing expressions and meanings in everyday
usage, as they emerge.
Avoiding language choices that depict stereotypical
characteristics; draw attention to physical characteristics, sex,
age, cultural background, sexual preference or religion; or that
give irrelevant information.

Overcoming sexist language:

gender-inclusive language
equal opportunity policies (inclusive language, LL p146 passage)

Discriminatory Language
Discourse may be overtly or covertly sexist or

racist.
Prejudice is passed on by erecting stereotypical
boundaries between groups.
In covert racism or sexism it is intended that the
readers (or hearers) opinion be manipulated
through language such as:
Racist discourse ( examples:LL.140-143)
Sexist discourse (examples: LL. 143-145) see PPT:
How language represents women.
Racist and sexist discourse: p.174, question 33

Social Functions of Formal Texts

Reinforcing social distance and authority- negative

need politeness
Establishing expertise- jargon
Promoting social harmony and negotiating social
taboos- euphemisms, political correctness,
discriminatory language
Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating-doublespeak

Clarifying, manipulating or
obfuscating
Doublespeak is the use of language features (such as complex sentences, euphemisms,

weasel words, nominalisations, passives etc)

Purpose-to influence attitudes, sometimes mislead, distance the doer from the action,
adds another layer to euphemism-more deliberate act of misleading and obscuring
meaning.
Contexts-managerial, political, advertising, military
Eg. There is hardly any doubt the plant is safe, Invasion/rescue mission, Collateral
damage, Friendly fire, downsize, redundancy
Given the within year and budget time flexibility accorded to the science agencies in the

determination of resource allocation from within their global budget, a multi-parameter

approach to maintaining the agencies budgets in real terms is not appropriate.
In other cases, words with a particular subjective effect are chosen. For example, it is
common to find some writers speaking of "resistance fighters" or "freedom fighters",
while others call the same subjects "terrorists". The underlying facts are the same, but a
quite different impression is given.
LLp171 act 29,30, 31
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEDADADq8ck

Often public language is accused of being empty of real meaning and

therefore, there is often overlap between the terms public language and
doublespeak.

What truth is being obscured?

aerial ordnance (military): bombs and missiles.
detainee: prisoner of war (e.g. on terrorism.)
interrogation techniques/methods - tortures
applied by U.S. military(e.g. in liberated Iraq)
rendition: the deportation of prisoners by one
country to another not burdened by following
international laws, for the purpose of torture.
smart bomb: usually air-launched explosives
configured with guidance system

Can you guess whats happening here?

a partial surrender to gravity, temporary altitude alleviation, a safety
demonstration reinforcement scenario

Andrew Denton's Randling programme had some excellent examples of double-speak Ep. 4
There was one authentic example: "a turbine disk liberation event" to describe part of the
plane falling off
Theses others were from the panel to describe a similar event:
a partial surrender to gravity
temporary altitude alleviation
a safety demonstration reinforcement scenario
an unplanned fuel saving phenomenon
an inflight structural emancipation
an expedited landing catalyst
an accidental mechanical divorce
a standard procedural black box evolution
we've decided to open the bar and offer free drinks to passengers in economy

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuEQixrBKCc-

( to 5minutes)
US military used doublespeak to gloss over realities of the

war in the Persian Gulf.

Massive bombing attacks were called "efforts"; warplanes
were called "weapons systems" or "force packages";
a bombing mission was called "visiting a site. Buildings
and human beings that were the targets of bombing were
called "hard" and "soft targets."
During their "visits," "weapons systems" "degraded,"
"neutralized," "attrited," "suppressed," "eliminated,"
"cleansed," "sanitized," "impacted," "decapitated," or "took
out" targets.

Consider the way double speak is used to create a

sense of Us and Them
British troops are taking part in a major offensive aimed
at freeing parts of Helmand province from Taliban
control. Operation Moshtarak involves 15,000 troops,
mostly British, US and Afghan. The first US marines
arrived in Marjah by helicopter before dawn and British
forces have been sweeping through
Nad Ali.
Progress around Marjah has been slow as Taliban
fighters step up counter-attacks against Nato and Afghan
forces endeavouring to advance through booby - trapped
streets.

Types of Doublespeak cont

To obscure or manipulate the truth=Weasel Words
Weasel Words is a great resource for contemporary
examples of public language abuse. http://
www.weaselwords.com.au/index3.htm
A weasel word is an informal term for words and
phrases aimed at creating an impression that
something specific and meaningful has been said,
when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has
been communicated.
I never knowingly lied

Activity: Research the use of weasel words in public

language, advertisements etc

For example, an advertisement may use a weasel phrase such as "up to

50% off on all products"; this is misleading because the audience is

invited to imagine many items reduced by the proclaimed 50%, but the
words taken literally mean only that no discount will exceed 50%, and in
practice, the vendor is free not to reduce any prices and still remain
faithful to the wording of the advertisement.

Scientific Double Speak

Nominalisation
The process of changing verbs, (and adjectives and
adverbs) into nouns
When a verb is nominalised, it becomes a concept
rather than an action.
As a consequence, the tone of the writing will
sound more abstract and also more formal.
At their best they help to express ideas, at their
worst they impede human communication

It was so silent it was frightening.

The silence gave rise to fear.
He was punished because he refused to participate.
His refusal to participate led to his punishment.
Many people move to the cities to find work.
A reason for population movement is employment.

Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were

becoming concerned.
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern
among the police.
Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the
immediate cause of the Second World War
breaking out.
Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 was the
immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second
World War.

Informal

Formal

Margaret was determined and this

helped her win.

Margarets determination helped

her win.

The point where the two lines

intersect is called the origin.

The intersection of two lines is

called the origin.

When the new government was

elected new laws were introduced.

Following the Election new laws

were introduced by the
government.

Many people do not have jobs

because recently many of the small
firms have closed.
The graph shows the way the weight
and the height are related.
Explain how a rhombus and a square
are different

The closure of small firms has

resulted in unemployment.
The relationship between weight
and height is shown on the graph.
Give an explanation for the
difference between a rhombus and
a square.

In Summary:
Nominalisation constructs more abstract and

technical meanings.
By turning language elements into a noun we can
qualify, describe, classify, and qualify it as a thing.
By turning a verb, adjective or conjunction into a
thing it takes on a life of its own.
Nominalisation is a key way of moving up the
register continuum.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNlkHtMgcPQ

Passive Voice
THE BOY ATE THE APPLE
THE APPLE WAS EATEN BY THE BOY
MARY WILL DRIVE THE VAN
THE VAN WILL BE DRIVEN BY MARY
IF THE SUBJECT IS THE "DOER OF THE
ACTION," THE SENTENCE IS ACTIVE.
IF THE SUBJECT IS THE "RECEIVER OF THE
ACTION," THE SENTENCE IS PASSIVE.

Changing a sentence to a passive construction

eg I ate the pizza

1. Move the pizza to the beginning of the sentence
2. Add the verb to be in the appropriate form (am, is,
were, was)
3. Change the tense of the verb from simple past to
past participle
4. You can leave out the subject
.The pizza was eaten.

I kicked the dog.

I woke my father.
I stopped the car.
Participants in the survey were asked about their changes in political

affiliation.
I was surprised by the teacher's lack of sympathy.
The teacher's lack of sympathy surprised me.
With five seconds left in the game, an illegal time-out was called by one of
the players.
With five seconds left in the game, one of the players called an illegal timeout.
The major points of the lesson were quickly learned by the class, but they
were also quickly forgotten by them.
The class quickly learned, and then quickly forgot, the lesson's major points.

Why use the Passive Voice?

It highlights the effect of the action, rather than the

person or thing that did it. The message was conveyed

by the courier.
It can deflect from the person doing the action. A
mistake was made that lost the company $750,000 for
the company (by me )
It can elevate the tone as an agentless action often has
more authority. A decision was made.
It can improve the impact: Never in the field of human
conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.

Activity: Ensure you are familiar with and able to use the
following:
Taboo
Euphemism
Dysphemism
Values
Swearing
Non-discriminatory language
Political correctness
Social taboos
Public arena
Double speak
Discrimination
Social harmony

ACTIVITIES (L.L.)
Outcome task 1: p. 177, question 1.1
Outcome task 2: p. 177
Outcome task 3: p. 180
Outcome task 4: p. 182

Unit 3 Homework Task

Choose any two texts from the text folio file (try to

pick texts with a variance in formality);

Complete a comparative analysis of the texts;
Length 700 + words (dont get too carried away!)

Student tips for commentary

writing:
Comparative Commentary
Aim to include discussion of:
Whether or not your texts are written in Standard English;
The distinctive features of each text that contribute to their informality, with specific
reference to stylistic features and/or discourse strategies from the metalanguage
section;
The relationship between the language in the texts and the contexts in which they were
created;
The social purpose of the texts;
Structuring the Commentary
Your response should involve a comparison between the texts, including a well
supported discussion of where each text sits along the continuum of informal and
formal registers.
You must ensure that you use accurate and appropriate metalanguage and select
relevant linguistic evidence (with line numbers) from your texts to support your ideas.
You are expected to adopt a formal register in your essay. You must be conscious of
the accuracy, expressiveness, fluency and coherence of your writing.

I have a Dream
Read the transcript of Martin Luther Kings speech

carefully.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_YBplucfuk
Write an analytical commentary of the language

features present in the text. Discuss any of the

subsystems (lexis and morphology, phonology, syntax,
semantics and discourse) and any other stylistic
features appropriate to the sociolinguistic variables.