DB2

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Definition
Data Base is a collection of data stored in a well
organized manner

Advantages of database

Redundancy can be reduced

Inconsistency can be avoided
Data can be shared
Standards can be enforced
Security restrictions can be applied
Integrity can be maintained
conflicting requirements can be balanced

Characteristics of DBMS
Data Independence
Speedy handling of spontaneous information
requests
Non-Redundancy
Versatility in representing relationships
between data items
Security protection
Real-time accessibility

Types of data bases

Hierarchical Database
Network Database
Relational Database

Hierarchical Database
The Data in this database is stored in the form
of Segments. The Segments will have ParentChild relationship.
One Parent segment can have more than one
Child Segments and one Child Segment can
not have more than one Parent Segment,

I.e., One-To-Many approach

Ex. IMS/DB

Network Database
The data stored in this type of database in the
form of records and links
Here one record can have more dependent
records and the same record can have more
superior records also, I.e., Many-To-Many
approach
Ex. IDMS

Relational Database
The data in this type of database is stored in
the form of Tables.
The relationship between Tables can be
maintained by using Primary key and Foreign
Key relationship
Ex. DB2, Oracle, Sybase etc..

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DB2
DB2 is a relational database developed by
IBM for computers running under MVS
DB2 can be connected to CICS, IMS, TSO
(These three environments provide services
like data communication and control of
transactions)

RDBMS Terminology
The data in Relational data base is stored in
Table/Relation in terms of rows and columns
Rows are called TUPLES and columns are
called ATTRIBUTES
No.of attributes is called as ORDER
No.of Tuples is called as CARDINALITY

Primary key
It represents a single column or group of columns and
performs the unique identification of rows(records) in
table

Alternate key
It is a alternate key to search table, need not maintain
uniqueness
Referential Integrity
If table-1 includes a foreign key FK matching the
primary key PK of table-2 , then every value of FK in
the first table must either be equal to the value of PK
in the second table, then Referential integrity is
ensured b/w two tables

 Relational Operators
Union, Union All
Combining two or more tables or part of
tables in row fashion
ex. Select empname from emp where deptno=10
UNION
select empname from emp where deptno=20
Union All eliminates duplicates

Join
Combining two or more tables or part of
tables in column fashion
There is no Join operator in DB2, but we can
achieve it through Select statements
There are Internal Join and Outer Join, Internal
Join looks for matching values of both
columns of two tables where as Outer Join
does not look for matching.
ex. Select empsal.*, emppsnl.* from empsal,
emppsnl where empid.empsal= empid.emppsnl

 Normalization:
It is a formal process of developing data
structures in a manner that eliminates
redundancy and promotes integrity.
This normalization can be achieved generally
by using three forms
1) Elimination of repeating groups
2) Elimination of Partial key dependencies
3) Elimination of inter key dependencies

 The following ex. For attaining first normal form:

CREATE TABLE Contacts
(contact_id Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
varchar(20),
contact_date1 Date,
contact_desc1 varchar(50),
contact_date2 Date,
contact_desc2 varchar(50));

 The elimination of repeating groups can be

done as follows
CREATE TABLE Contacts
(contact_id Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
varchar(20));
CREATE TABLE Conversation
(contact_id
Number(9,0) Not Null,
contact_date Date,
contact_desc varchar(50));

 The following ex. For attaining second normal

form:
CREATE TABLE Employee
(emp_no
Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
Varchar(20)
dept_code Number(3,0)
description varchar(50));

 The second normal form can be obtained as

follows
CREATE TABLE Employee
(emp_no
Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
Varchar(20)
dept_code Number(3,0));
CREATE TABLE Department
Dept_code Number(3,0) Not Null,
Description varchar(50) not null);

Ex. For third normal form

CREATE TABLE Contacts
(contact_id Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
varchar(20)
company_name
varchar(20)
company_location varchar(50));

The third normal form can be obtained as follows

CREATE TABLE Contacts
(contact_id Number(9,0) Not Null,
l_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
f_name
varchar(20)
company_id varchar(20));
CREATE TABLE Company
(company_id
Number(3,0) Not Null,
company_name
Varchar(20) Not Null,
company_location

varchar(50));

OVER VIEW OF DB2

Major Components of DB2

System service component
which supports system operation(system start
start up and shut down), operator
communication, system log etc.
Locking service component
which provides necessary controls for
managing concurrent access to data
Data base service component
which supports the definition, retrieval and
update of user and system data

 Distributed data facility component

It provides access to distributed data

Runtime Supervisor
It is resident in the main memory when the
application program is executing.
When the program requests some database
operation to be performed, control first goes to
the runtime supervisor, which uses the control
information in the application plan to request
the appropriate on the part of the Data Manager.

Data Manager
It performs all the normal access method
functions- search, retrieval, update, index
maintenance, etc., and also manages the
Physical Databases.
It invokes other system components as
necessary in order to perform detailed
functions such as locking, logging, I/O
operations, etc.

 Data types in BD2

String:
char(x)--> max. val.of x is 255
varchar(x)--> max. val.of x is 4096 bytes
Graphic(x)--> max. val.of x is 127 bytes
Vargraphic(x)
char,varchar are single byte characters set and
graphic and vargraphic are duble byte
character set.

 Numeric:
Small int(two bytes), Integer(four bytes),
Decimal(x,y), float(n)
Date and time:
Date --> mmddccyy
Time --> hhmmss
Time stamp --> mmddccyyhhmmssnnnnnn

STRUCTURED QUERY
LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL (Structured query language)

It is used to communicate with database.we can use
this language in two ways I.e., one way is DB2
Interactive another way is by embedding the sql
code in application program
Sql is divided into three departments, those are
DDL (Data definition language)
operations: CREATE, ALTER, DROP
DML (Data manipulation language)
operations: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE,
SELECT

Contd...

 DCL (Data control language)

operations: GRANT, REVOKE

Explanation with Examples

DDL is used for objects like storage group,
database,table, view, index, Alies,synonyms
ex. CREATE TABLE table name
(col1 data type null constraint,
col2 datatype null constraint, ..)
PRIMARY KEY (key field),
FOREIGN KEY (keyfield)
REFERENCES base table
ON RESTRICT/CASCADE/SET NULL

 ALTER TAABLE tablename

ADD colx data type
PRIMARY KEY(key field)
FOREIGN KEY (key field)
REFERENCES base-table
ON DELETE RESTRICT/CASCADE/ SET
NULL
DROP TABLE table name

 DML is used for manipulation of data in a table

ex.a) INSERT into emp(empno,deptno,name)
values(102,30,xyz)
b)SELECT * from emp where deptno = 10
c)UPDATE emp SET salary= 10000
where dept.no in (10,20)
d) DELETE from emp where d.no=10
DCL is used for to give and take back privileges
from users
ex. REVOKE privileges ON object FROM user
privileges are like select, update, delete, insert

 Usage of IN, BETWEEN, LIKE, SUBSTR

in sql
IN:
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno
IN(10,20)
BETWEEN:
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE salary
BETWEEN(1000,3000)
SUBSTR:
SELECT SUBSTR(empname,1,4) from emp
WHERE empno=10

 LIKE:
For partial search of a columns LIKE is used.
ex.a)Select empid from emp where empname
LIKE -am-
b)select empid from emp where empmane
LIKE sub%

 Usage of mathematical functions in sql

MIN,MAX,COUNT,SUM,AVG
ex. Select MAX(salary) FROM emp
Select MIN(salary) FROM emp
Select COUNT(*) FROM emp
Select AVG(salary) FROM emp
Select SUM(salary) FROM emp

 Subquery
It is a query having another query inside the
main query is called subquery
Ex.SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE
d.no=(SELECT d.no FROM dept WHERE Loc =
chennai)
Correlated subquery
It is a subquery executed for each qualified row
in the outer query.
Ex.1 SELECT name, salary FROM emp WHERE
emp.salary > (SELECT AVG(dept.salary) FROM
dept WHERE emp.deptno=dept.deptno)

 Note:

The execution of a subquery happens from

inner query to outer and in case of correlated
subquery, the execution happens in reverse
order, I.e., from outer query to inner query
Ex.2 Select name, deptno, salary from emp x
where salary > (select AVG(salary) from emp
GROUP BY deptno HAVING deptno=x.deptno)

DB2 APPLICATION
DEVELOPMENT

 Steps involved in Execution of an

application program
Source Code
Precompiler
Modified source code
DBRM
Compile
Bind
Link
Package or Plan
Load Module

DBRM: (Database request module)

It contains the Sql stmts extracted from host
language program in precompilation
step.DBRM is stored in a member of PDS.
This DBRM is the input for the Bind process.
A token is placed in DBRM& load module in
precompiler step

BIND:
It involves in creating executable code for the

sql stmt.s in DBRM with optimised data

access path for sql queries

 The out put of bind step, is generating

PACKAGE (executable code of one DBRM)
or PLAN (executable code of more than one
DBRMs)
performs authorization checks
Isolation level parameters, lock size
parameters are declared in this step

Some more notes to run DB2 application

program
We run a DB2 application program by
submitting JCL or through TSO environment
We have to supply parameters like DB2
subsystem name, plan or package name, name
of the program, library of load module etc.
generally to run a db2 application program we
use IKJEFT001 utility program

SPUFI(sql processing using file input)

It reads the sql statements contained as a text in
sequential file, processes those statements and
places in output dataset specified in browse mode

QMF(Query management facility)

It is an interactive query tool used to produce
formatted query output.we can type sql query after
choosing option 6 from QMF main panel and press
PF2 to run the query, for formating the report press
PF9 before getting the printout.qmf is for single
query execution. QMFPROC can be used to executed
multiple sql queries.

Host variable
It is a storage space provided by the host language
for the variables declared in sql queries. Purpose is to
store the query result in the corresponding host
variable.

NULL, NOT NULL, NOT NULL WITH

DEFAULT
In a table, all columns of every record always
cant contain values, in such cases we can use
Null, Not Null, Not Null with default instead of
supplying values. These options we should define
while creation of Table for particular column.

Null
when we dont supply values for a column of
specified record, null will be supplied by the
system.
Not Null
This option specifies that the column cant have
nulls, always values to be supplied for the columns
declared as Not Null.
Generally KEY fields(columns) are defined with
NOT NULL option.

Not Null With Default

This option specifies that default values will
be supplied by the system when ever the
values are not supplied by us for the columns
defined as NOT NULL WITH DEFAULT.
The values generally supplied are Spaces,
Zeroes, Time stamp for Character data,
Numeric data and Date data respectively.

 Insertion of a null indicator

By moving -1 null indicator variable
ex. EXEC SQL
INSERT INTO emp
VALUES(:ws-empno, :ws-sex,
:ws-age :ws-age-ind)
END-EXEC

Singleton Select and

CURSOR Technique
We can use sql in interactive mode and batch mode
(by embedding sql statements in the application
program)
Embedded sql is of two types one is singleton select
and cursor type
In Singleton select we can select only one row,
if the result containing more than one row abends the
program

Ex. For singleton Select statement

EXEC SQL
SELECT empno, name, sex
INTO :ws-emp-rec FROM emp WHERE
empno = :ws-empno
END-EXEC

CURSOR Technique
In CURSOR technique, we can process
multiple rows unlike one row in singleton
select. Cursor technique can be achieved by
four steps , those are

 1)Declare cursor
EXEC SQL
DECLARE empcursor CURSOR
FOR
SELECT empno,sex,age FROM
employee
END-EXEC
2)Open cursor
EXEC SQL
OPEN empcursor
END-EXEC

 3)Fetch cursor
EXEC SQL
FETCH empcursor INTO : ws-emp-no,
ws-sex, ws-age
END-EXEC
4) Close cursor
EXEC SQL
CLOSE empcursor
END-EXEC

FOR UPDATE OF, WHERE

CURRENT OF, WHEN EVER
For Updating any record in the table by using
embedded sql we will use FOR UPDATE
OF and WHERE CURRENT OF phrases
To handle the error conditions in an
application program, WHEN EVER option
will be used.
For the above phrases examples are given in
next slide.
Contd.

 EXEC SQL
DECLARE empcursor CURSOR
FOR SELECT empno, salary FROM emp FOR
UPDATE OF salary
END-EXEC
EXEC SQL
UPDATE emp SET salary=:ws-salary
WHERE CURRENT OF empcursor
END-EXEC
EXEC SQL
WHENEVER condition action
END-EXEC

 Conditions are like SQL WARNING, SQL

ERROR, NOT FOUND and Actions are like
CONTINUE, GO TO

SQLCA(sql communication area)

It contains fields (SQLCODE, SQLERRD)
which are used for communicating
information describing the success or failure
of SQL statement.
EXEC SQL
INCLUDE SQLCA
END-EXEC

Model DB2 application program

(with COBOL)
working storage section
01 ws-fetch-flag pic 9(1).
88 ws-fetch-over-cn
value 0.
88 ws-fetch-not-over-cn value 1.
01 ws-salnew
EXEC SQL
DECLARE empcursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT EMPNO,NAME,DEPT,SALARY
FROM employee WHERE dept= :pa-cry-dept
FOR UPDATE OF salary
END-EXEC

EXEC SQL
INCLUDE SQLCA
END-EXEC

procedure Division.
MOVE consultancy TO pa-cry-dept.
EXEC SQL
OPEN empcursor
END-EXEC.
SET ws-fetch-not-over-cn TO TRUE.
PERFORM Modify-sal-para
THRU Modify-sal-para-exit
UNTIL ws-fetch-over-cn.

EXEC SQL
CLOSE empcursor
END-EXEC.
STOP RUN.
Modify-sal-para.
EXEC SQL
FETCH empcursor
INTO :empno, :name, :dept, :salary
END-EXEC.
EVALUATE
SQLCODE
WHEN SQLCODE < 0
PERFORM X-error-para
THRU X-error-para-exit

WHEN SQLCODE < +100

SET ws-fetch-over-cn TO TRUE
WHEN OTHER
COMPUTE ws-salnew = salary * 1.25
EXEC SQL
UPDATE employee
SET salary = ws-salnew
WHERE CURRENT OF empcursor
END-EXEC
END-EVALUATE.
Modify-sal-para-exit.
EXIT.

Important SQL CODES

If SQLCODE = 0 --> execution successful
> 0 --> execution successful
with
warning
< 0 --> execution not
successful
100 --> No rows are matching for a specified
condition
-811 --> Result of an embeded sql stmts
resulted in retrieval of more than one row
-803 --> Duplicate rows inserted

-603 --> Unique index creation failure due to

duplicate row inserted
-913 --> Dead lock
-918 --> Mismatch of time stamp b/w DBRM &
Load module

DB2 INTERNALS

Database Objects
Storage Group
It is set of DASD volumes given a particular
name By using CREATE STORAGE GROUP we
can create storage group
Data Base
It is collection of table spaces and index spaces.By
using CREATE DATABASE we create data base.

 Table space
Table spaces are used to store the tables. These
are three types, Simple table space, Segmented
table spaces, Partitioned table spaces
Table
Combination of rows and columns
INDEX
Index is an ordered set of pointers to rows of a base
table. Key has to be supplied for creation of an index
To create index, use CREATE INDEX syntax

 VIEW
It is window to the table, may be combination of tables
or part of a table. Views are not updatable if the view
is combination two tables
ex. CREATE VIEW empview (empno, name) AS
(SELECT empno, name FROM emp) WHERE
salary < 3000
SYNONYM
It is an alternate name for a table. The purpose is to
hide the information location of the table It can be
accessed only by the user who creates it, mainly used
in local sub systems, it will be dropped when table is
dropped

Ex. CREATE SYNONYM synonym name FOR

table name
ALIAS
It is similar to synonym, the differences are, it can
be accessed by any user, can be used for local as
well as remote subsystems and it will not get
dropped even when the table is dropped

Locking Mechanism and Isolation Levels

Lock
Locking is a mechanism to maintain the
integrity of data in database
Types of locks
Sharable --> Read only
Update --> Read only
Exclusive --> No access to others
Lock levels
we can get lock at Row level or at page level
or at Table level or at Table space level we can

specify what lock size to use, while creationof

table space or in bind operation or through
application program.
Isolation levels
These specifies lock to be held whether until
next fetch or until end of unit of work There
are two types of Isolation Levels.
These Isolation Level will be specified at
BIND time.

 1) Cursor Stability
In this type of isolation level, lock held until
next fetch
By using this we can avoid last update
problem
2) Repeatable read
In this type of isolation level, lock held until
end of unit of work
Incorrect summary is eliminated

Dead lock
It is a situation in which two or more
transactions are in simultaneous wait state,
each wait for one of others to release a lock on
object before it can proceed. Transaction
manager will take care this problem suggests
for roll back of the task

DB2 RESTART AND

RECOVERY SCENARIOS

Recovery
The data in database will be recovered by
using Recover utility, when any problem
occurs like system crash, is called Recover of
database.
Active Log
It is DASD dataset used to write the DB2 log
record (containing data changes and
significant changes as they occur) is called
Active Log.

Archive log
When Active log is full DB2 copies its
contents to DASD or TAPE dataset called
Archive log.
Off-Loading
The process of transferring data from Active
log to Archive log is called Off-Loading.

 COMMIT
By issuing this command the database changes
will be updated and establishes a syncpoint
Roll back
When any unsuccessful end-of-transaction
happens, to undo all the changes upto the last
syncpoint (boundary b/w two transactions),
roll back command is used.