The Respiratory System I

(Chapter 22)

Lecture # 8
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
and Pulmonary Ventilation
Objectives
1- State the functions of the respiratory system.
2- Name and describe the organs of this system.
3- Trace the flow of air from the nose to the pulmonary alveoli.
4- Relate the function of any portion of the respiratory tract
to its gross and microscopic anatomy.
5-Describe the brainstem centers that control breathing.
6- Explain how pressure gradients account for the flow of air
in and out of the lungs, and how those gradients are
produced.
7- Explain the significance of anatomical dead space to
alveolar ventilation.
8- Define the clinical measurement of pulmonary volume
and capacity.

Breathing represents life. The first breath of a newborn baby and the
last gasp of a dying person are two of the most dramatic moments of
human experience

Why do we breathe?
All our body processes directly or indirectly require ATP and ATP
synthesis requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide

O2 + Food

CO2 + H2O +
We need to breathe to take in oxygen, and eliminate carbon dioxide

CO2

Alveoli
in lung

O2

CO2

The respiratory and cardiovascular systems

work together to deliver oxygen to the
tissues and remove carbon dioxide

O2

They are often considered jointly as

cardiopulmonary system. Disorders of lungs
directly effect the heart and vise versa
The respiratory system and the urinary
system collaborate to regulate the bodys
acid base balance

Tissue cells

Excess of CO2 reacts with water and releases

H+

CO2 + H2O
O2
CO2
H2O

Food

H2CO3

HCO3 + H+

Functions of Respiratory System

1- O2 and CO2 exchange between blood and air
2- Speech and other vocalizations (laughing, crying)
3- It provides the sense of smell
4- It helps to control the pH of body fluids by eliminating CO2
5- It helps to regulate blood pressure by synthesis of a vasoconstrictor called angiotensin II
6- Breathing creates pressure gradients between thorax and
abdomen that promote the flow of lymph and venous blood
7- Breath-holding helps expel abdominal contents during
urination, defecation, and childbirth

Principal Organs of the Respiratory System

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx

Trachea
Lungs
Bronchi

The Nose
Anatomy of the Nasal Region

(a) External anatomy. (b) Connective tissues that shape the nose

The Nasal Cavity: It is the internal chamber of the nose

The nasal cavity is divided into right and left halves (nasal fossae) by
the nasal septum
NASAL SEPTUM

Vomer

Perpendicular plate
of ethmoid

Septal
cartilage

Middle nasal
concha

Inferior
nasal concha

The Nasal Cavity

Meatuses:
Superior

Nasal conchae:
Superior
Middle
Inferior

Middle
Inferior
Posterior
nasal
aperture

Functions of the nose

1- It warms, cleanses, and humidifies
inhaled air.
2- It detects odors in the airstream.
3- It serves as a resonating chamber
that amplifies the voice.

Vestibule

The respiratory epithelium lines the rest of nasal cavity except

vestibule. It is a ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with
goblet cells.

The Pharynx
Posterior
nasal
aperture

Pharynx:
Nasopharynx
It is a passageway for air
It is lined by a pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Oropharynx
It is a passageway for air, food and drink
It is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium
Laryngopharynx
It is a passageway for air, food and drink
It is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium
Larynx
Trachea

Esophagus

The Pharynx

Nasopharynx (posterior to nasal apertures

Pharyngeal tonsil

and above soft palate)

Auditory tube

Oropharynx (space between soft palate

Palatine tonsil

and epiglottis)

Laryngopharynx
(from the epiglottis to the cricoid cartilage)

The Larynx
It is a cartilaginous chamber about 4 cm (1.5 in.)
1- To keep food and drink out of the airway
Functions:
2- Production of sound (phonation)
Epiglottis

Epiglottis

It closes the airway

during swallowing

Hyoid bone
Epiglottic cartilage

Hyoid bone
Thyroid cartilage

Thyroid cartilage

Arytenoid cartilage

Corniculate cartilage
Vestibular fold
Vocal cord

Cricoid cartilage

Arytenoid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea

(a) Anterior

Tracheal cartilage

(b) Posterior

(c) Median

The Larynx

Vestibular fold
They play no role in
speech but close the
larynx during swallowing

Vocal cord
(from the thyroid
cartilage to the arytenoid
cartilage)
They produce sound when
air passes between them

Median

The Trachea
The trachea (windpipe) is a rigid tube
about 12 cm (4.5 in.) long and 2.5 cm
(1 in.) in diameter.
It is found anterior to the esophagus
and it is supported by 16 to 20 Cshaped rings of hyaline cartilage,
which reinforces the trachea and
keeps it from collapsing when you
inhale.

Ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium with
goblets cells

Trachea

Mucociliary escalator
It is a mechanism that moves debris-laden mucus to the pharynx to
be swallowed.

Epithelium:
Goblet cell
Ciliated cell
Mucus
Mucous gland

The Lungs
They are conical organs with a broad, concave base, resting on the
diaphragm, and a blunt peak called the apex projecting slightly above the
clavicle.
Apex of lung

Superior lobe
Costal surface
Superior lobe

Horizontal fissure

Middle lobe

Mediastinal
surface

Oblique fissure
Inferior lobe

Oblique fissure
Inferior lobe

Base of lung

Diaphragmatic
surface

Thyroid
cartilage
Larynx

Cricoid
cartilage

Bronchial Tree
All bronchi are lined with ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
The lamina propria has an abundance of
mucous glands and lymphocyte nodules
(bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue,
BALT) positioned to intercept inhaled
pathogens.

Trachea
Carina

Main bronchi

Superior lobar
bronchus

Superior lobar
bronchus

Middle lobar
bronchus
Segmental bronchi
(10 on right)

Inferior lobar
bronchus
Inferior lobar
bronchus

Segmental bronchi
(8 on left)

Bronchopulmonary segment: It is a functionally independent unit of the lung tissue.

Main bronchus
(lung)

Conducting Division of
Respiratory System
It consists of those passages that serve only
for airflow:
1- Nostrils
2- Nasal cavity
3- Pharynx
4- Larynx
5- Trachea
6- Main (primary) bronchi (lungs)
7- Lobar (secondary) bronchi (lobes)
8- Segmental (tertiary) bronchi (segments)
9- Bronchioles (lobules)
10- Terminal bronchioles (the final branches)

Lobar
bronchus
(lobe)

Bronchioles and terminal bronchioles lack of

supportive cartilages)

Segmental
bronchus
(segment)
Bronchiole
(pulmonary
lobule)

Respiratory Division of
Respiratory System

It consists of those structures that participate

in gas exchange
Terminal
1- Respiratory bronchioles
bronchioles
2- Alveolar duct
(final branches of
conducting division) 3- Atrium
4- Alveoli

Pulmonary
arteriole

Pulmonary
venule
Openings of
alveolar ducts

Bronchiole

Alveolar sac

Terminal
bronchioles

Respiratory
bronchioles
Every respiratory bronchiole
divides into 2 to 10 alveolar
ducts, which end in the
alveolar sac
Alveoli

Pulmonary Alveoli

Fluid with
surfactant
Squamous
alveolar cell
(type I)
Respiratory
membrane

Great
alveolar
Cell (type II)

They repair the

alveolar epithelium
when the squamous
(type I) cells are
damaged, and
secrete pulmonary
surfactant

Capillary
endothelial
cell

Alveolar
macrophage

They are phagocytic cells that

engulf invaders and activate the
immune system

The Respiratory Membrane

Squamous
alveolar cell

Respiratory
membrane

O2

O2

CO2

O2

CO2

CO2

Shared
basement
membrane
Capillary
endothelial
cell

Epithelium Type Changes in the Respiratory System

Nasal cavity

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Nasopharynx

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Oropharynx

Stratified squamous epithelium

Laringopharynx

Stratified squamous epithelium

Larynx (superior part)

Stratified squamous epithelium

Larynx (inferior part)

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Trachea

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Bronchi

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Bronchioles

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium

Terminal bronchioles

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Alveoli

Simple squamous epithelium (with 5% of

round or cuboidal cells (type II alveolar cells)

The Respiratory
Muscles

Neural Control of Breathing

No autorhythmic pacemaker cells for respiration, as in the heart,
have been found.
The exact mechanism for setting the rhythm of respiration remains
unknown, but we do know that breathing depends on repetitive
stimuli of skeletal muscles from brain.

Breathing is controlled
at 2 levels of the brain.

1- Neurons in medulla oblongata and pons

control unconscious breathing, enabling us to
breath without thinking about it.
2- The motor cortex provides voluntary control,
enabling us to inhale or exhale at will.

Automatic, unconscious cycle of breathing is controlled by three

pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular formation of the medulla
oblongata and the pons.
1- The ventral respiratory group (VRG)
2- The dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
3- The pontine respiratory group (PRG)

Medulla oblongata

Pons

Autonomic (Involuntary) Control of

Breathing
Pontine respiratory group (PRG)
It modifies rhythm of the VRG by outputs to both the VRG and
DRG.
It adapts breathing to special circumstances such as sleep,
exercise, vocalization, and emotional responses
Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
It is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm and
produces a respiratory rhythm of 12 breath per minute.

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

It modifies the rate and depth of breathing. It receives
influences from external sources:

1
2

A respiratory center on the pons

Chemosensitive center of the anterior medulla oblongata
They respond to the pH of the CSF, which reflex the
CO2 level in the blood

Chemoreceptors in the carotid

and aortic bodies

They respond to the O2 and CO2 content

and the pH of the blood

Irritant receptors in the airway (they

respond to smoke, dust, pollen,
chemical fumes, cold air)

Voluntary Control of Breathing

The voluntary control over breathing
originates in the motor cortex of frontal
lobe of cerebrum. It sends impulses down
corticospinal tracts to respiratory neurons
in spinal cord, bypassing brainstem.
There are limits to voluntary control. A
breaking point is reached when CO2 levels
rise to a point when automatic controls
override ones will.

Pulmonary Ventilation
ressure, Resistance, and Airflow
1- Pressure
The respiratory airflow is governed by the same principles of flow,
pressure, and resistance as blood flow.
The flow of a fluid is directly proportional to the pressure difference
between two points:
600
mm Hg

600
mm Hg

600
mm Hg

500
mm Hg

600
mm Hg

400
mm Hg

No flow
The flow of a fluid is inversely proportional to the resistance
600
mm Hg

400
mm Hg

600
mm Hg

400
mm Hg

600
mm Hg

400
mm Hg

Boyles Law:
At a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume
763 mm
Hg

760 mm
Hg

757 mm
Hg

If the lungs contain a quantity of a gas and the lung volume increases, their
internal pressure (intrapulmonary pressure) falls
If the pressure falls below atmospheric pressure the air moves into the lungs
Inspiration

At rest

760 mm
Hg

Expiration
Intrapulmonary
pressure

757 mm
Hg

763 mm
Hg

No flow
Atmospheric

760 mm Hg pressure

760 mm Hg

760 mm Hg

Pulmonary Ventilation:

It consists of the repetitive cycles of inspiration (inhaling) and expiration

(exhaling).

Pressure-Volume Relationships in
the Lungs Inspirati
Expiratio
n
on
Air:
760
-3
+
mmHg
3
Volume
Pressure
(763
mmHg)

Rib cage in normal

position and diaphragm
is relaxed

Volume
Pressure
(757
mmHg)

Intercostal muscles
elevates the rib cage
and diaphragm is
contracted

Boyles law: Pressure and volume are inversely

proportional

Inspiration
Rib cage elevates and
diaphragm contracts

Expiration
Rib cage returns to the normal
position and diaphragm relaxes

2- Resistance
Pressure is one determinant of airflow and resistance is the other
The greater the resistance the slower the flow

Three factors influence the airway resistance:

1- Diameter of the bronchioles
2- Pulmonary compliance (the ease with which the lungs can expand)
3- Surface tension of the alveoli and distal bronchioles
1- Diameter of the bronchioles
Bronchodilation: It is an increase in the diameter of a bronchus or bronchiole
Epinephrine and sympathetic stimulation stimulate bronchodilation and increase air flow
Bronchoconstriction: It is a decrease in the diameter of a bronchus or bronchiole
Histamine, parasympathetic nerves, cold air, and chemical irritants stimulate
bronchoconstriction
Suffocation from extreme bronchoconstriction brought about by anaphylactic shock and
asthma

2- Pulmonary compliance (the ease with which the lungs can expand)
It determines the change in lung volume relative to a given pressure change.
The thoracic cage expands normally but the lungs expand relatively little.
Pulmonary compliance reduced by degenerative lung diseases in which the
lungs are stiffened by scar tissue (tuberculosis, black lung disease *).
3- Surface tension of the alveoli and distal bronchioles
Water molecules in the alveolar epithelium are attracted to each other by
hydrogen bonds, creating a surface tension.
Surface tension draws the walls of the alveoli inward toward the lumen and
resisting the reinflation.
A surfactant is a substance produced by the great alveolar cells (type II cells)
that disrupts the hydrogen bonds and allows the lungs to expand.
Premature infants often have a deficiency of pulmonary surfactant and
experience great difficulty breathing.
The result is the infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS), which is treated
with artificial surfactant.
* Black lung disease is a chronic occupational

lung disease contracted by the prolonged breathing of coal mine dust.

Black lung disease is also called anthracosis, black lung, black spittle, coal worker's pneumoconiosis, miner's asthma,
pneumoconiosis, and silicosis.

Only air that enters the alveoli is available for gas exchange
But not all inhaled air gets there, about 150 mL fills
the conducting division of the airway (anatomical
dead space).
When a person inhales 500 mL of air, 150 mL stays in
anatomical dead space, and 350 mL reaches alveoli.
In pulmonary diseases, some alveoli may be unable
to exchange gases because they lack blood flow or
there respiratory membrane has been thickened by
edema or fibrosis.
Physiologic (total) dead space:
It is the sum of anatomic dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space.
In a healthy person: Anatomical dead space = Physiologic (total) dead space

Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR):

It is the air that ventilates alveoli (350 mL) X respiratory rate (12 bpm) =
4200 mL/min.
The alveoli never completely empty during expiration.
Residual volume:
It is the air that cannot be exhaled with maximum effort (1300 mL).

Measurements of Ventilation
Spirometer
It is a device that recaptures expired breath
and records such variables such as rate and
depth of breathing, speed of expiration, and
rate of oxygen consumption.

Respiratory Volumes
1- Tidal volume (TV):
It is volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle during quiet breathing
(500 mL).
2- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
It is the air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort
(3000 mL).
3- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
It is the air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum
effort (1200 mL).
4- Residual volume (RV):
It is the air remaining in lungs after maximum expiration (1300 mL).

1- Tidal volume (TV):

It is volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle during quiet breathing (500 mL)
2- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
It is the air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort (3000 mL)
3- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
It is the air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort (1200 mL)
4- Residual volume (RV):
It is the air remaining in lungs after maximum expiration (1300 mL)
Maximum possible inspiration

2- Inspiratory
reserve volume
(IRV)
1- Tidal
volume (TV)

3- Expiratory
reserve volume
(ERV)
Maximum voluntary
expiration

4- Residual
volume (RV)

Pulmonary Capacities
1-Vital capacity (VT):
It is the total amount of air that can be inhaled and then exhaled with maximum effort (4700mL)
2-Inspiratory capacity (IC):
It is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration (3500 mL)
3-Functional residual capacity (FRC):
It is the amount of air remaining in lungs after a normal tidal expiration (2500 mL)
4-Total lung capacity (TLC)
It is the maximum amount of air the lungs can contain
Maximum possible inspiration

2- Inspiratory
reserve volume
(IRV)

Vital capacity

Inspiratory
capacity

1- Tidal
volume (TV)
Total lung capacity
3- Expiratory
reserve volume
(ERV)
Maximum voluntary
expiration

4- Residual
volume (RV)

Functional residual
capacity