IGCSE BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 13: REPRODUCTION

13.1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCES

GENETICALLY IDENTICAL OFFSPRING

Reproduction is the process of producing

new individuals from living organisms.
Sexual reproduction
- Production of new
individuals by living
organisms involving
gametes

Asexual reproduction
- Production of new
individuals by living
organisms without
involving gametes

Reproduction

13.1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCES

GENETICALLY IDENTICAL OFFSPRING

Video on reproduction:

13.1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCES

GENETICALLY IDENTICAL OFFSPRING

Asexual reproduction involves only one

parent.
Offspring resulting from asexual
reproduction are genetically identical to
the parent.

13.2 BACTERIA REPRODUCE BY BINARY FISSION

Bacterial cells do not have a nucleus

containing chromosomes. Therefore, they
divide by binary fission instead of mitosis.
Bacterial DNA is just a single, circular
molecule. When the bacteria divides, the
DNA is replicated and the cell then
divides into two, each with one copy of
the DNA.

13.2 BACTERIA REPRODUCE BY BINARY FISSION

Binary fission in bacteria

13.3 FUNGI PRODUCE SPORES ASEXUALLY

Fungi are like plants and animals. Like

plants, they have cell wall (made of chitin).
Like animals, they cannot photosynthesise
and have to feed on organic food
materials.
The bread mould, Mucor, often grows and
feed on bread.
Mucor looks like a furry growth on the bread.
This fur is called mycelium which is a
network of hyphae.

13.3 FUNGI PRODUCE SPORES ASEXUALLY

Each hypha is just one cell thick.

The hyphae grow through the bread and
secrete enzymes to digest the starch,
protein and fat in the bread to produce
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
glycerol which diffuse into the hyphae.
The sporangium forms at the tip of each
aerial hypha. The sporangium contains
spores.

13.3 FUNGI PRODUCE SPORES ASEXUALLY

Mucor

13.4 POTATOES REPRODUCE BY PRODUCING STEM

TUBERS

Potato reproduce asexually using stem

tubers. Stem tubers grow on
underground
stem of the potato plant.
Each potato plant produces many tubers.
Each tuber grows into a new plant.
Therefore, one potato plant can give rise
to many new ones.

13.4 POTATOES REPRODUCE BY PRODUCING STEM

TUBERS

Tuber formation in potato plant

13.5 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION INVOLVES

FERTILISATION

Fertilisation is a process whereby the

nucleus of the male and female gametes
fuse to produce a zygote.

13.5 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION INVOLVES

FERTILISATION

Video on fertilisation:

13.6 GAMETES HAVE HALF THE NORMAL NUMBER OF

CHROMOSOMES

Gametes have half the number of

chromosomes of body cells. This is so that
the zygote formed will have the correct
number of chromosomes.
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes.
But human egg and sperm cells only have
23 chromosomes because the zygote
formed will have 46 chromosomes.

13.6 GAMETES HAVE HALF THE NORMAL NUMBER OF

CHROMOSOMES

Human body cells are called diploid cells

because they contain 2 complete sets (46)
of chromosomes.
Gametes are called haploid cells because
they contain only a single set (23) of
chromosomes.

13.6 GAMETES HAVE HALF THE NORMAL NUMBER OF

CHROMOSOMES

Sexual reproduction

13.7 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCES

GENETICALLY DIFFERENT OFFSPRING

Gametes are made by body cells dividing

by meiosis. Meiosis halves the number of
chromosomes in these gametes compared
to their parent cells.
In flowering plants and animals, meiosis
only happens when gametes are being
made.

13.8 MALE GAMETES MOVE FAMALE ONES STAY

STILL

The female gamete is stationary while

the male gamete moves actively in
search of the female gamete.
Certain organisms such as earthworm,
slug and many flowering plants can
produce both male and female gametes.
These organisms are called
hermaphrodites.

13.9 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Fallopian tube
Uterus

Ovary
Cervix
Vagina
The female reproductive system

13.9 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Part

Description and function

Ovary

Female sex organ that produces ova and female sex

hormones

Fallopian tube
(oviduct)

A muscular tube where fertilisation takes place

Uterus

Thick muscular walls

Place where the foetus develops and grows
Lining of uterine wall is rich in blood vessels

Cervix

Neck of the uterus. Widens during childbirth

Vagina

Muscular tube which opens to the outside of the female

body
Place where the sperms are transferred during sexual
intercourse

13.10 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland

Penis

Sperm
duct

Testis
Urethra
The male reproductive system

Scrotum

13.10 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Part

Description and function

Prostate gland
and seminal
vesicle

Secrete alkaline fluid which contains nutrients for the sperms

Sperm duct

A tube which transports sperms from the testis to the urethra

inside the body

Testis

Produces the male sperms and male sex hormones

Scrotum

It holds and protects the testes

Provides a temperature 1 C lower than the body temperature
favourable for sperm production

Urethra

It is a passage that allows sperm and urine to flow out of the

body

Penis

Male sex organ which is made up of soft tissues and rich in

blood vessels
It transfers semen into the vagina of the female during sexual
intercourse

13.1 OVARIES MAKE EGGS

Before birth, there are thousands of partly

developed eggs (follicles) inside the
ovaries of a girl.
During puberty, some follicles develop,
one each month. When it matures, the
egg bursts out of the ovary into the oviduct.
This is called ovulation.

13.1 OVARIES MAKE EGGS

Cell membrane

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Jelly layer
Structure of an ovum

13.12 TESTES MAKE SPERM

Sperms are made in narrowed coiled

tubes called tubules.
Sperms are made continually from puberty
onwards.
Sperm production is very sensitive to
heat. If it gets too hot, the cells in the
tubules will not develop into sperm. That
is
why the testes are outside the body.

13.12 TESTES MAKE SPERM

Cross section of a testis

13.12 TESTES MAKE SPERM

Nucleus
Acrosome

Neck
Mitochondria

Head

Middle piece

A human sperm

Tail

13.13 MATING INTRODUCES SPERM INTO THE VAGINA

After ovulation, the egg is caught in the

funnel of the oviduct. The funnel is lined
with cilia which beat to move the egg
towards the uterus.
Muscles in the wall of the oviduct also
help to move the egg by peristalsis.

13.13 MATING INTRODUCES SPERM INTO THE VAGINA

Sperms are pushed out of the penis into

the vagina. This is due to the muscular
contraction in the walls of the tubes
containing the sperm.
The wave of contraction begins in the
testis, to the sperm ducts and into the
penis.
Fluid containing sperm is called semen.
Ejaculation deposits semen in the vagina.

13.14 FERTILISATION HAPPENS IN THE OVIDUCT

Pathway of the sperm in the female body:

13.14 FERTILISATION HAPPENS IN THE OVIDUCT

Fusion of the nucleus of the sperm and the nucleus of an egg

13.15 THE ZYGOTE IMPLANTS IN THE UTERUS WALL

The zygote formed by fertilisation

continues to move down the oviduct. As it
goes, it divides to form a ball of cells called
embryo.
The embryo obtains food from the yolk of
the egg.
The embyro implants itself into the lining
of the uterus wall. This is called
implantation.

13.15 THE ZYGOTE IMPLANTS IN THE UTERUS WALL

Yolk of the egg

13.15 THE ZYGOTE IMPLANTS IN THE UTERUS WALL

One successful sperm
penetrates the membrane
of the egg. Fusion of the
sperms nucleus and the
ovums nucleus occurs
(fertilisation)

The zygote moves

down the fallopian
tube into the
uterus

The zygote forms

a ball of cells, the
embryo
One mature egg
is released by
the ovary into
the oviduct
(ovulation)

After fertilisation, a
zygote is formed. It
then undergoes
repeated cell
division

The embryo is implanted

inside the lining of uterine
wall (implantation). A
placenta forms around the
implanted embryo

Ovulation, fertilisation and implantation of embryo

13.16 THE EMBRYO LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEM IS ITS

PLACENTA

As the embyro grows, a placenta also

grows, which attaches it to the wall of the
uterus.
The placenta has finger-like projections
called villi that fit closely into the uterus
wall.
After 11 weeks, the embryo has
developed into a fetus which is joined to
the placenta by the umbilical cord.

13.16 THE EMBRYO LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEM IS ITS

PLACENTA

In the placenta are capillaries filled with

the fetuss blood. In the wall of the uterus
are large spaces filled with the mothers
blood.
Although separated, the mothers and
fetuss blood are brought very close
together because the wall of the placenta
is very thin.

13.16 THE EMBRYO LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEM IS ITS

PLACENTA

Structure of the placenta

13.16 THE EMBRYO LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEM IS ITS

PLACENTA

The mothers and fetuss blood meet at

the placenta and exchange substances.
Umbilical
cord

Waste products
and carbon
dioxide diffuse
from the fetuss
blood in the
placenta

Mothers
blood in the
placenta

Mothers
vein

Fetus

13.17 AN AMNION PROTECTS THE FETUS

The fetus is surrounded by a strong

membrane called the amnion.
The amniotic fluid which gives warmth,
reduces friction to facilitate movement and
protect the fetus.
Birth begins when the strong muscles in
the uterus wall contract. This called
labour.

13.18 MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS CAUSE BIRTH

Due to the strong contraction, the cervix

widens. When the cervix is wide enough,
the contraction will push the baby down
the cervix and the vagina.

13.18 MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS CAUSE BIRTH

Amnion

The fetus grows inside the uterus

13.19 PREGNANT WOMEN SHOULD CARE FOR THEIR

HEALTH

When a woman is pregnant, she should

take extra care of her health. This is called
ante-natal care.

13.19 PREGNANT WOMEN SHOULD CARE FOR THEIR

HEALTH
Nutrients

Sources

Functions

Carbohydrates
and fats

Rice, bread, potatoes,

butter, cheese

To supply energy for various

daily activities of the mother

Protein

Chicken, beef, fish,

beans, milk, cheese

For growth of new cells in the

fetus

Folic acid

Broccoli, spinach,
hazelnuts, groundnuts

For proper development of

nervous system in the fetus

Vitamin C

Citrus fruit, tomatoes,

guava, vegetables

For healthy skin of the fetus

and mother

Calcium and
phosphorus

Anchovies, cheese, milk

For formation of healthy bones

in the fetus and maintenance
of healthy bones and teeth of
the mother

Iron

Liver, red meat, tuna fish

For formation of haemoglobin to

prevent anaemia in the mother

Fibre

Cereals, vegetables,
fruits

To prevent constipation in the

mother

13.19 PREGNANT WOMEN SHOULD CARE FOR THEIR

HEALTH

Although useful substances can diffuse

from mothers blood to fetuss blood, some
harmful substances can too. For example,
nicotine, carbon monoxide from cigarette
smoke, alcohol, drugs and viruses.

13.20 MAMMALS CARE FOR THEIR YOUNG

During pregnancy, the mammary glands

become larger. Soon after birth, they begin
to make milk.
The process of making milk is called
lactation. Lactation only happens in
mammals.
Milk contains all the nutrients the baby
need and antibodies to fight infection.

13.20 MAMMALS CARE FOR THEIR YOUNG

Lactation

13.21 BREAST MILK HAS ADVANTAGE OVER

FORMULA MILK
Formula milk
Advantages

Disadvantages

Feeding can be done by anyone

besides the mother

Much more expensive

Help the feeding father to bond to the

baby

Maybe contaminated during the

production stage

Breast milk
Advantages

Disadvantages

Free

Mother does not produce enough milk

No preparation needed

Infectious diseases maybe transmitted

in breast milk

Mother-baby bonding

Other family member cannot partake

in this activity, missing out the
opportunity to bond with the baby

13.22 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE LASTS ABOUT 28 DAYS

The follicle turns into
a corpus luteum. The
lining of the uterus
wall becomes more
vascular, ready to
receive the embryo if
the egg is fertilised

Menstrual cycle
As the egg has not
been fertilised, the
thick uterus wall
lining is not needed.
It breaks down and is
gradually lost
through the vagina

Menstruation phase (Day

1 - 5)
Repair phase (Day 6 - 11)
Fertile phase or ovulation
phase (Day 12 - 16)
Premenstrual phase (Day
17 - 28)

The follicle
bursts, releasing
an egg from the
ovary. Fertilisation
could take place
at about day 14

Inside the ovary, a

follicle containing
an egg develops.
The lining of uterus
wall is repaired

13.23 SEXUAL MATURITY IS REACHED AT PUBERTY

The time when a person approaches

sexual maturity is called adolescence.
Sperm production begins in a boy and
ovulation in a girl.
During adolescence, the secondary sexual
characteristics develop.

13.23 SEXUAL MATURITY IS REACHED AT PUBERTY

13.23 SEXUAL MATURITY IS REACHED AT PUBERTY

13.24 FEMALE SEX HORMONES CONTROL THE

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The secretion of oestrogen and

progesterone is controlled by two
hormones secreted by the pituitary gland
called the luteinising hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

13.24 FEMALE SEX HORMONES CONTROL THE

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Pituitary

13.25 BIRTH CONTROL CAN PREVENT UNWANTED

PREGNANCIES
Birth control
method

Contraceptive
device

Natural method

None

Chemical
method

Spermicides

Inserted into the vagina with a diaphragm

to kill sperm

Contraceptive
pills

Stop eggs forming in the ovaries

Mechanical
method

Description
Couple avoid sexual intercourse
completely (abstinence) or ensuring that
they do not have sexual intercourse
during the womans fertile phase

Condom

Stops the sperm from entering the womans

vagina

Femidom

Condom for female inserted into the vagina

Diaphragm

IUD

Inserted into the vagina and covers the

cervix to prevent sperm from entering
the uterus
Prevents fertilisation or implantation of embryo

13.25 BIRTH CONTROL CAN PREVENT UNWANTED

PREGNANCIES
Birth control
method

Contraceptive
device

Surgical method

Vasectomy

Ligation

Description
Sperm ducts cut and the cut ends are tied to
prevent the transportation of sperm from
testis to urethra
Oviducts are cut and the cut ends are tied
to prevent the egg from moving to the
oviducts

13.25 BIRTH CONTROL CAN PREVENT UNWANTED

PREGNANCIES

Spermicide

Contraceptive pills

13.25 BIRTH CONTROL CAN PREVENT UNWANTED

PREGNANCIES

Condom

Diaphragm

Femidom

IUD

13.25 BIRTH CONTROL CAN PREVENT UNWANTED

PREGNANCIES

Vasectomy

Ligation

13.26 HORMONES CAN BE USED TO INCREASE

FERTILITY

Some couples are not able to have

children. The problem that is causing the
couples infertility may be in the man or
woman.

13.26 HORMONES CAN BE USED TO INCREASE

FERTILITY
Male
The testes cannot produce sperm
There is sperm production but low
sperm count
Low quality sperms produced

Female
Ovaries cannot produce or
release mature ova

Male is impotent. Sperms cannot be Blocked oviducts due to growth of

transferred into the vagina
tissues or infection
Growth in the uterus prevents
implantation of embryo

13.26 HORMONES CAN BE USED TO INCREASE

FERTILITY

13.26 HORMONES CAN BE USED TO INCREASE

FERTILITY

Fertility drug

Laparoscope

13.26 HORMONES CAN BE USED TO INCREASE

FERTILITY

In vitro fertilisation

Artificial insemination

13.27 GONORRHOEA IS A SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED

DISEASE

Bacterium that causes gonorrhoea can

only survive in moist places like a
womans vagina or a mans urethra. Thus,
the infection can be passed from one to
the other during sexual intercourse.
Symptoms of gonorrhoea:
(i) Discharge from the penis or vagina
(ii) Pain during urination for man

13.28 HIV CAN BE TRANSMITTED DURING SEXUAL

INTERCOURSE

AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency

syndrome) is caused by HIV (human
immunodeficiency virus).
HIV can only reproduce inside a host
cell.
AIDS can only be transmitted by direct
contact of your body fluid and the body
fluid of someone with the virus.

13.29 HIV IS TRANSMITTED IN BODY FLUIDS

13.30 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING

PLANTS

Flowering plants can reproduce asexually

or sexually by means of flowers.
The function of a flower is to make
gametes and to ensure that fertilisation
will take place.
Most flowers are hermaphrodite.

13.30 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING

PLANTS
Structure

Function

Sepal

Protects the flower during the bud

stage

Petal

Attracts insects to the flower

Stamen

Male reproductive organ of a

flower which consists of the
filament and anther

Filament

Holds the anther

Anther

Contains pollen grains which

produce the male gametes

Carpel

Female reproductive organ of a

flower which consists of the stigma,
style and ovary

Ovary

Contains ovules which produce the

female gametes

Style

Stalk of the carpel

Stigma

Catch pollen grains

Nectary

Produces nectar for insects to feed

on

13.31 POLLEN GRAINS CONTAIN MALE GAMETES

The male gametes are inside the pollen

grains, which are made in the anthers.
Cells around the pollen sacs divide by
meiosis to make pollen grains.
Each pollen grain is surrounded by a hard
coat so that it can survive in difficult
conditions if necessary. The coat protects
the male gametes in the pollen grains as
they are carried to another flower.

13.31 POLLEN GRAINS CONTAIN MALE GAMETES

How pollen is made

13.32 EACH OVULE CONTAINS A FEMALE GAMETE

The female gametes are inside the ovules

in the ovary. They have been made by
meiosis.
Each ovule contains just one female
gamete.

13.33 POLLEN MUST BE CARRIED FROM ANTHER TO

STIGMA

Pollination is the transfer of the pollen

grain from anther to a stigma.
Pollination is the first step for fertilisation
to take place.
Pollination is often carried out by insects
such as honey bees which collect nectar
from flowers. In the process, their bodies
brush past the anthers and the pollen sticks.

13.33 POLLEN MUST BE CARRIED FROM ANTHER TO

STIGMA

The bees then visit another flower, looking

for more nectar. The pollen on their bodies
stick to the stigma of the second flower. If
the second flower is from the same plant
species, pollination has occurred.

13.33 POLLEN MUST BE CARRIED FROM ANTHER TO

STIGMA

Bees are pollinating agents

13.33 POLLEN MUST BE CARRIED FROM ANTHER TO

STIGMA

Video on pollination:

13.34 FLOWERS CAN BE SELF- OR CROSSPOLLINATED

Pollination

Self-pollination

Cross-pollination

Transfer of pollen from the anther

of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower or to the stigma of
another flower on the same plant

Transfer of pollen from the

anther of a flower to the stigma
of another flower on a different
plant of the same species

13.34 FLOWERS CAN BE SELF- OR CROSSPOLLINATED

Cross-pollination
Self-pollination

Self-pollination

Pollination

13.35 SOME FLOWERS ARE WIND-POLLINATED

Wind-pollinated flower

Insect-pollinated flower

Small petals

Large petals

No scent

Scented

No nectaries

Nectaries present

Anthers dangling outside of flower

Anthers inside flower

Stigmas outside of flower

Stigmas inside flower

Light pollen

Sticky pollen

13.36 POLLEN TUBES TAKE MALE GAMETES TO

OVULES

13.37 FERTILISED OVULES BECOME SEEDS

After fertilisation, the sepals, petals and

stamens which are no longer needed will
wither and fall.
After fertilisation, the ovule becomes the
seed and the ovary becomes the fruit.

13.37 FERTILISED OVULES BECOME SEEDS

Seed structure

13.37 FERTILISED OVULES BECOME SEEDS

Part
Seed

Embryo

Structure

Function

Testa

Protects the seed from damage and prevents

entry of bacteria and fungi

Hilum

Place where the seed is attached to the

fruit

Micropyle

Small hole which allows air and water to

enter the seed

Embryo

Consists of plumule and radicle

Cotyledon

Stores and provides food for the dicotyledonous

seed

Plumule

Part of the embryo which develops into the

shoot

Radicle

Part of the embryo which develops into the

root

13.38 FRUITS PROTECT AND DISPERSE SEEDS

The function of the fruit is to protect the

seeds inside it until they are ripe and then
helps to disperse the seeds.
Fruits and seeds are dispersed by
animals, water and air.

13.38 FRUITS PROTECT AND DISPERSE SEEDS

Seed dispersal by animals and wind

13.39 FRUITS ARE OVARIES AFTER FERTILISATION

In biology, the word fruit has a very

particular meaning. The biological
definition of a fruit is an ovary after
fertilisation.
Most people assume that fruits must be
sweet. However, vegetables such as
tomato, bell pepper, cucumber and beans
are also fruits.

13.39 FRUITS ARE OVARIES AFTER FERTILISATION

Sometimes, it is not easy to tell a fruit from

a seed.
A fruit has 2 scars one where it was
attached to the plant and one where the
style and stigma were attached to it. A
seed, though, only has one scar (hilum),
where it is attached to the fruit.

13.40 UPTAKE OF WATER BEGINS SEED

GERMINATION

Without water, a seed is dormant. This is

very useful because the seed can
survive harsh conditions such as cold or
drought.
When a seed germinates, it first absorbs
water through the micropyle. As the water
goes into the cotyledons, they swell and
the testa burst.

13.41 DURING GERMINATION. ENZYMES DIGEST

FOOD STORES

After the seed has absorbed enough water,

the enzymes in the cotyledons are activated
and they start to digest the food store.
Form new cell
membrane and
cytoplasm

Starch is broken
down to glucose

Glucose is used for

respiration to
provide energy for
germination and to
produce new cell
walls for new cells

13.41 DURING GERMINATION. ENZYMES DIGEST

FOOD STORES

After a few days, the radicle grow and

plumule grow. The first leaves open out
and begin to photosynthesise.

Germination of seed

13.42 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION PRODUCES

VARIATION

Asexual reproduction does not produce

variation because the offspring inherit
genetic material from one parent only.
Offspring are genetically identical to the
parent.
Sexual reproduction produces variation
because the offspring inherit genetic
material from 2 parents. Offspring are
genetically different from their parents.

13.43 SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION EACH

HAVE THEIR ADVANTAGES
Asexual reproduction
Advantages

Disadvantages

Offspring inherit good characteristics

from parent

May inherit poor characteristics from

parent

Only need one parent to reproduce

In a crowded area, offspring have to

compete with parent for light, water
and mineral salts

Sexual reproduction
Advantages

Disadvantages

Produces seeds which are dispersed

far away so that offspring will not
compete with parents for light, water
and mineral salts

Need 2 parents to reproduce

Offspring may adapt better to the

environment or more resistant to
diseases than parents due to variation

Consumes time and energy