HANDOUTS BY:

ENDANG KOMARIAH
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT UNSYIAH
2014

end 2014

What is the Study of Second Language

Acquisition?
It is the study of:
how second languages are learned;
how learners create a new language system with limited exposure to a
second language;
why most second language learners do not achieve the same degree of
proficiency in a second language as they do in their native language; and
why some learners appear to achieve native-like proficiency in more than
one language.

end 2014

What is Second
Language Acquisition?
In second language learning, language plays an
institutional and social role in the community. It
functions as a recognized means of communication
among members who speak some other language as their
native tongue.
In foreign language learning, language plays no major
role in the community and is primarily learned in the
classroom.
The distinction between second and foreign language learning
is what is learned and how it is learned.
end 2014

How Do Learners Acquire a Second

Language?
Learners acquire a second language by making use of
existing knowledge of the native language, general
learning strategies, or universal properties of language
to internalize knowledge of the second language.
These processes serve as a means by which the learner
constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system
reflecting the learners current L2 knowledge).
Communication strategies are employed by the learner
to make use of existing knowledge to
cope with communication difficulties.
end 2014

The Language Learner

Individual differences affect L2 acquisition. These may include: (1) the
rate of development and (2) their ultimate level of achievement.
Learners differ with regard to variables relating to cognitive, affective
and social aspects of a human being.
Fixed factors such as age and language learning aptitude are beyond
external control. Variable factors such as motivation are influenced by
external factors such as social setting and by the actual course of L 2
development.
Cognitive style refers to the way people perceive, conceptualize,
organize and recall information.

end 2014

Field dependent learners operate holistically. They like to work with

others. Field independent learners are analytic and prefer to work alone.

INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS
DIFFERENCES

PERSONAL FACTORS
1.GROUP DYNAMICS : COMPETETIVENESS
(SUCCESSFUL IMAGE AND UNSUCCESSFUL
IMAGE)
2.ATTITUDES TO THE TEACHER AND COURSE
MATERIALS
3.INDIVIDUAL LEARNING TECHNIQUES

end 2014

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER
DIFFERENCES

GENERAL FACTORS
1.AGE : COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, CRITICAL
PERIOD HYPOTHESIS.
2.INTELLIGENCE AN APTITUDE
3.COGNITIVE STYLE
4.ATTITUDES AND MOTIVATION (INSTRUMENTAL
AND INTEGRATIVE)
5.PERSONALITY: INTROVERT AND EXTROVERT,
SOCIAL SKILLS.

end 2014

The Role of the Native Language in

Second Language Acquisition Languag
e

Transfer
The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as
language transfer.
It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively on
their native language.
According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the distribution of
the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and
culture.
This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language.
This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language and
culture as practiced by native speakers.
Lados work and much of the work of that time (1950s) was based on the need to produce
pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language and the target
language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages.
end 2014

Framework for
Explaining L1 Transfer

Languag
e
Transfer

The L1 system is used for both comprehension and production.

The interlanguage system is also used in comprehending and
receiving messages.
The L1 system is used in hypothesis construction responsible for
interlanguage development.
Comprehensible input serves as a major source of information for
hypothesis construction.
L2 output may be used for hypothesis construction.
end 2014

Toward a Theory of First

Language Transfer

Theory

An important distinction not always made in discussions of transfer is

between transfer in L2 communication and transfer in L2 learning.
Transfer in communication involves the use of the L 1 either to receive
incoming messages (reception) or to process output (production).
Transfer in learning occurs when the learner uses the L 1 in an attempt
to develop hypotheses about L2 rules.
There are several possibilities for transfer: 1) it is primarily a
characteristic of communication 2) it is primarily a feature of learning
3) both communication and learning transfer are significant and
interrelated aspects of L2 acquisition.

end 2014

Language

Language Transfer

Transfer

Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through
positive transfer to the native-language pattern.
Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors
occurred resulting from negative transfer.
Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists
claims. This re-evaluation included area such as:
the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior
to the language behavior of humans were pointed out;
2.
the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where
language behavior was concerned;
3.
analogy could not account for the language users ability to generate
totally novel utterances; and
4.
studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely
corrected their childrens linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the
importance of reinforcement in language learning.
All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L 1 in L2 learning.
1.

end 2014

The Nature of the

Interlanguage Continuum
Cognitive theories of interlanguage claim that with the assistance of
learning strategies, learners build mental grammars of the second
language.
Learners draw on the rules they have constructed to interpret and
produce utterances.
Learners utterances are only erroneous with reference to the target
language norms, not to the norms of their own grammars.
The interlanguage continuum consists of a series of overlapping
grammars. Each share some rules with the previously constructed
grammar, but also contains some new or revised rules.
A rule has the status of a hypothesis.
end 2014

Selinkers Interlanguage
Theory
Selinkers Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learners system and gives the system a structurally
intermediate status between the native and target languages.
According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language or
target language system, rather it falls between the two.
Stages of Interlanguage Development include:
1) random errors (presystematic);
2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing;
3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production;
4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors;
5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency;
6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and
7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i.e.
spelling).
Interlanguage Continuum

end 2014

Interlanguage Stages
L1
L2
______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______
Basilang
Mesolang
Acrolang

Identification of
Learner Errors

Error
Identification

An error can be defined as a deviation from the norms of the target language although questions are raised
as to which variety of the target language should serve as the norm.
The general practice where classroom learners are concerned is to select the standard written dialect as a
norm.
The distinction between errors and mistakes is a concern in this type of research. Errors take place when the
deviation arises as a result of lack of knowledge. Mistakes occur when learners fail to perform their
competence.
Overt errors are deviations in form i.e. I runned all the way. Covert errors occur in utterances that are
superficially well-formed but which do not mean what the learner intended them to mean i.e. It was
stopped. What does it refer to?
Should the analysis of errors examine only deviations in correctness or also deviations in appropriateness?
Correctness errors involve rules of language use i.e. learner invites a stranger by saying I want you to come
to the cinema with me. The code was used correctly it was not used appropriately.
There are three types of interpretation of errors: 1) normal- can assign a meaning to an utterance based on
the rules of the target language; 2) authoritative-involves asking the learner to say what the utterance means
in order to make an authoritative reconstruction; and 3) plausible-can be obtained by referring to the
context in which the utterance was produced or by translating the sentence literally into the learners L 1.
end 2014

Learner Errors
Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning processes.

Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L 2 acquisition was the result of L1 transfer
or creative construction (construction of unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of
acquiring the native language).

The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer (interlingual), while those
errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were indicative of creative construction (intralingual).

The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by transferring L 1 habits, many more
were not.

It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors varied according to their level
of development.

Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what learners could do correctly.
end 2014

Error Analysis

Error
Analysis

The conceptualization and significance of errors took on a different

role with the publication of an article by Pit Corder (1967) entitled
The Significance of Learner Errors. Errors are not just to be seen as
something to be eradicated, but rather can be important in and of
themselves.
Errors provide evidence of a system (learners attempt to figure out
some system). This evidence can provide information on the state of a
learners knowledge of the L2. They are not to be viewed solely as a
product of imperfect learning.

end 2014

The distinction of error and mistake is also important in EA. Mistakes

are slips of the tongue. The speaker who makes a mistake is able to
recognize it as a mistake and correct it if necessary.

Error Analysis
(Continued)

Error
Analysis

An error is systematic. It is likely to occur repeatedly and is not recognized by the

learner as an error. The learner has incorporated a particular erroneous from the
perspective of the target language into his/her own system.
The learner has created a systematic entity called an interlanguage.
Errors are only errors with reference to some external norm such as the target
language. For example, if a learner produces No speak. or No understand. and if
we assume that these are consistent deviations and form a part of a learners system,
then it is only possible to think of them as errors with regard to English, but not with
regard to the learners system.
Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make.
The comparison made in EA is between the errors a learner makes producing the target
language and the target language form itself.

end 2014

Research in EA was carried out within the context of the classroom. The goal was
pedagogical remediation.

Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis
Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the
ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a
second language learning situation.
Lado detailed that one does a structure-by-structure comparison of the sound system, morphological
system, syntactic system and even the cultural system of two languages for the purpose of
discovering similarities and differences.
The ultimate goal of contrastive analysis is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for
learners.
There are two positions that developed with regard to CA: (1) strong (2) weak.
The strong version (predictive) maintained that one could make predictions about learning and
hence about the success of language teaching materials based on a comparison between two
languages.

end 2014

The weak version (explanatory) starts with an analysis of learners recurring errors (error analysis).
It begins with what learners do and then attempts to account for those errors on the basis of native
language-target language differences.

Components of
Communicative Competence
Canale and Swain (1983) identified four components of communicative competence:
1) grammatical competence
2) sociolinguistic competence
3) discourse competence
4) strategic competence

Grammatical competence means understanding the skills and knowledge necessary to

speak and write accurately. Grammatical competence includes:
1) vocabulary
2) word formation
3) meaning
4) sentence formation
5) pronunciation
6) spelling

Sociolinguistic competence involves knowing how to produce and understand the language
in different sociolinguistic contexts, taking into consideration such factors as:
1) the status of the participants
2) the purpose of the interaction; and
3) the norms or conventions of the interaction.
end 2014

Components of
Communicative Competence
(Continued)
Discourse competence involves the ability to combine and connect
utterances (spoken) and sentences (written) into a meaningful whole.
Discourse ranges from a simple spoken conversation to long written texts.
Strategic competence involves the manipulation of language in order to
meet communicative goals. It involves both verbal and non-verbal behaviors.
Speakers employ this competence for two main reasons:
1) to compensate for breakdowns in communication such as when the
speaker forgets or does not know a term and is forced to paraphrase or
gesture to get the idea across; and
2) to enhance the effectiveness of communication such as when a speaker
raises or lowers the voice for effect.
end 2014

Competence Vs. Performance

According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists of mental representations of
linguistic rules that constitute the speaker-hearers internal grammar.
This internal grammar is implicit rather than explicit. It is evident in the intuitions,
which the speaker-hearer has about the grammaticality of sentences.
Performance consists of the use of this grammar in the comprehension and production
of the language.
Communicative competence is that aspect of the language users competence that
enables them to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings
interpersonally within specific contexts.

end 2014

Language is a form of communication that occurs in social interaction. It is used for a

purpose such as persuading, commanding, and establishing social relationships. No
longer is the focus on specific knowledge of grammatical form. Instead, the competent
speaker is recognized as one who knows when, where, and how to use language
appropriately.

Language Learning
Behaviorists views of language learning and of language teaching were pre-dominant
in the two decades following the second world war. These views drew on general
theories of learning propounded by psychologists such as Watson (1924), Thorndike
(1932), and Skinner (1957).
Dakin (1973) identifies three general principles of language learning derived from
these theories.
1.

According to the law of exercise, language learning is promoted when the learner makes
active and repeated responses to stimuli.

2.

The law of effect emphasizes the importance of reinforcing the learners responses and
correcting non-target-like ones.

3.

The principle of shaping claims that learning will proceed most smoothly and rapidly if
complex behaviors are broken down into their component parts and learned bit-by-bit.

end 2014

Language Learning
(Continued)
Underlying these principles was the assumption that language learning, like any other kind of learning,
took the form of habit formation, a habit consisting of an automatic response elicited by a given stimulus.
Learning was seen to take place inductively through analogy rather than analysis.
According to behaviorist theories, the main impediment to learning was interference from prior
knowledge.
Proactive inhibition occurred when old habits got in the way of attempts to learn new ones. In such cases,
the old habits had to be unlearned so that they could be replaced by the new ones.
The notion of unlearning made little sense as learners did not need to forget their L1 in order to acquire an
L2.
For this reason, behaviorist theories of L2 learning emphasized the idea of difficulty. This is defined as
the amount of effort required to learn an L 2 pattern.

end 2014

The degree of difficulty was believed to depend primarily in the extent to which the target language
pattern was similar to or different from a native language pattern.

Language Acquisition for School: The

Prism Model
Thomas & Collier, 1997
t
L
n
1+
e
m
L
p
2 L
o
l
an
e
v
gu
e
D
ag
Social
ic
e
m
D
e
ev
d
and
a
el
c
A
op
Cultural
L2
m
+1
en
L
t
Processes

L1 + L2 Cognitive Development

end 2014

Cognitive Development
The cognitive dimension is a natural subconscious process that occurs
developmentally from birth to the end of schooling and beyond.
An infant initially builds thought processes through interacting with loved
ones in the language of the home.
This is an important stepping-stone to build on as cognitive development
continues.
It is important that cognitive development continue through a childs first
language at least through the elementary years.

end 2014

Extensive research has demonstrated that children who reach the threshold
in L1 by around age 11 to 12 enjoy cognitive advantages over monolinguals.

Academic Development
Academic development includes all school work in language arts, math, the
sciences, and social studies for each grade level, K-12.
With each succeeding grade, academic work dramatically expands the
vocabulary, sociolinguistic, and discourse dimensions of language to higher
cognitive levels.
Academic knowledge and conceptual development transfer from first
language to second language.
It is most efficient to develop academic work through the students first
language, while teaching second language during other periods of the school
day through meaningful academic content.
In earlier decades, schools in the United States emphasized teaching second
language as the first step and postponing the teaching of academics.
Research has shown that postponing or interrupting academic development
is likely to promote academic failure.
end 2014

Language Development
Linguistic processes consist of the subconscious aspects of language
development, an innate ability all humans possess for acquisition of
oral language, as well as the metalinguistic, conscious, formal teaching
of language in the school and acquisition of the written system of
language.
This includes the acquisition of the oral and written systems of the
students first and second languages across all language domains, such
as phonology, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
and discourse.
To assure cognitive and academic success in a second language, a
students first language system, oral and written, must be developed to
a high cognitive level at least through the elementary school years.
end 2014

Sociocultural Processes
At the heart of the figure is the individual student going through the process of
acquiring a second language at school.
Central to that students acquisition of language are all of the surrounding social and
cultural processes occurring through everyday life within the students past, present,
and future, in all contexts-home, school, community, and the broader society.
Sociocultural processes may include individual student variables such as self-esteem,
anxiety, or other affective factors.
At school the instructional environment in a classroom or administrative program
structures may create social and psychological distance between groups.
Community or regional social patterns such as prejudice and discrimination expressed
towards groups or individuals in personal and professional contexts can influence
students achievement in school, as well as societal patterns such as the subordinate
status of a minority group or accuturation vs. assimilation forces.

end 2014

These factors can strongly influence the students response to a new language, affecting
the process positively only when the student is in a socioculturally supportive
environment.

Learner Strategies
Learner strategies are defined as deliberate behaviors or
actions that learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Cognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge.
Metacognitive strategies are those which help with organizing a
personal timetable to facilitate an effective study of the L 2.
Social strategies include looking for opportunities to converse
with native speakers.
end 2014

Natural Order of Strategies of

Second Language Development
Chesterfield & Chesterfield (1985) identified a natural order of
strategies in the development of a second language.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
end 2014

Strate
gies

repetition (imitating a word or structure);

memorization (recalling songs, rhymes or sequences by rote);
formulaic expressions (words or phrases that function as units i.e. greetings);
verbal attention getters (language that initiates interaction);
answering in unison (responding with others);
talking to self (engaging in internal monologue);
elaboration (information beyond what is necessary);
anticipatory answers (completing anothers phrase or statement);
monitoring (self-correcting errors);
appeal for assistance (asking someone for help);
request for clarification (asking the speaker to explain or repeat); and
role-playing (interacting with another by taking on roles).

Theories of Second Language Theory

Acquisition (Continued)
Behaviorist Theory dominated both psychology and linguistics in the
1950s. This theory suggests that external stimuli (extrinsic) can elicit
an internal response which in turn can elicit an internal stimuli
(intrinsic) that lead to external responses.
The learning process has been described by S-R-R theorists as a process
forming stimulus-response-reward chains. These chains come about because of
the nature of the environment and the nature of the learner.
The environment provides the stimuli and the learner provides the responses.
Comprehension or production of certain aspects of language and the
environment provide the reward.
The environment plays a major role in the exercise of the learners abilities
since it provides the stimuli that can shape responses selectively rewarding
some responses and not others.
end 2014

Behaviorist Theory
(Continued)

Theory

When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains.
Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive
responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive responses
provided by the environment.
The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to:

end 2014

1.

respond to stimuli in a certain way;

1.

intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses;

2.

extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response (positive
reward chains); and

3.

generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of

S-R-R chains.

MENTALISTS ACCOUNTS OF
L1
ACQ

LANGUAGE IS A HUMAN-SPESIFIC FACULTY

THE UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR: INNATE CAPACITY,
INNATE LINGUISTICS CAPACITY, OR LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD).
THE CHILD BUILT UP HIS KNOWLEDGE OF HIS
MOTHER TONGUE BY MEANS OF
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
LERNERS LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT FACE
THE SAME ROUTE BUT NOT THE SAME RATE
(LEARNERS INTERLANGUAGE)

end 2014

Innatism
Language is not learned like other disciplines, but

is acquired through an innate ability.

Innatism lead to Universal Grammar.
Universal Grammar is the innate knowledge of the
rules and principles that are found in every
language.
Universal Grammar may not be available for
second language learners.

end 2014

Chomsky and
The LAD Theory
This is part of the nativist perspective,
This theory states that learners have a language

acquisition device (LAD).

The LAD is a brain structure that consists of
neural wiring.
The LAD theory states that learners have an
innate ability to know the structure and rules of a
language, and this facilitates language learning.
The LAD theory challenged Skinner and the
behaviorism perspective.
This theory also led to a reexamination of the role
of transfer in second language learning.

end 2014

Theories of Second Language

Acquisition (Continued)

Theory

Cognitivist Theory views human beings as having the innate capacity to

develop logical thinking. This school of thought was influenced by Jean Piagets
work where he suggests that logical thinking is the underlying factor for both
linguistic and non-linguistic development.
The process of association has been used to describe the means by which the child
learns to relate what is said to particular objects or events in the environment. The
bridge by which certain associations are made is meaning. The extent and
accuracy of the associations made are said to change in time as the child matures.
Cognitivists say that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions
that are necessary for any kind of learning. The environment provides the material
that the child can work on.
Cognitivists view the role of feedback in the learning process as important for
affective reasons, but non-influential in terms of modifying or altering the
sequence of development.

end 2014

Cognitivist Theory
(Continued)

Theory

Language Learning as a Cognitive Process

1.

Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance.

2.

Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present.
Activation is a learned response.

3.

Memory is a large collection of nodes.

4.

Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a

sequence.

5.

Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have
been used.

6.

Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i.e. knowing the what of the
language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge
i.e. know the how of the language system to employ strategies.

end 2014

PRAGMATICS AND
INTERACTIONISTS

COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND
COMMUNICATIVE PERFORMANCE
INTERACTION: LANGUAGE EXPOSURES, INPUT
AND OUTPUT
NATIVIST AND/OR MENTALIST LEARNING
THEORY: COGNITIVE/THINKING PROCESS

end 2014

Interactionist
Interactionist approach exists between the nature

versus nurture approaches.

Interactionist approach three main theories
Piagets Developmental Cognitive Theory
Vgotskys Social Interaction Theory
Information Processing Model

Interactionist approach focuses on social interactions

between L2 learners and the target language speakers.
These interactions give the L2 learners feedback on both
correct and incorrect language usage.
end 2014

Theories of Second Language

Acquisition (Continued)

Theory

Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the

development of language comes from the early interactions
between infants and caregivers.
Social interactionists stress:

the importance of a childs interactions with parents and other caregivers;

the importance of motherese;
contributions of context and world knowledge; and
the importance of goals

Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in their negotiation of

meaning to produce comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to
provide adequate opportunities for target language use to allow learners to
end
2014
develop
competence in the target language.

Social Interactionist Theory

(Continued)

Theory

Comprehensible output provides opportunities for

contextualized, meaningful use of language.
Social interactionists believe that:
Human language emerged from the social role that language plays
in human interaction;
The environment plays a key role in language development;
Adults in the childs linguistic environment are viewed as
instrumental in language acquisition.

end 2014

Social interactions are the key element in language processing and

input from social interactions provides a model for negotiation
opportunities.

Critical Period Hypothesis Age

and The L2 Learner
Natural language acquisition only takes

place between the ages of 2 and 12 years

old.
Due to a part of the brain before age 2 the brain in not ready
after the age of 12 the brain looses plasticity.

The Critical Period Hypothesis limits both native

language learning and second language
learning.
end 2014

Krashens Five Hypotheses for

Second Language Acquisition
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis claims that we have two
independent ways of developing language ability:

Language Acquisition is a subconscious process. It occurs very naturally in a non-threatening

environment. The research strongly supports the view that both children and adults can
subconsciously acquire languages.

Language Learning is what occurs at school in an academic setting. It is a conscious process.

When we talk about rules and grammar of language, we are usually talking about learning.

end 2014

The Natural Order Hypothesis claims that we acquire parts of a language

in a predictable order. Some grammatical items tend to come earlier in
the acquisition than others. For example, the ing progressive is acquired
fairly early in first language acquisition, while third person singular s is
acquired later.

THEORIES OF SLA
1. THE ACCULTURATION MODEL: THE PROCESS

OF BECOMING ADAPTED TO A NEW

CULTURE.
2. ACCOMODATION THEORY:MOTIVATION IS THE
PRIMARY DETERMINANT OF L2 PROFICIENCY.
3. DISCOURSE THEORY: SLA follows a natural
route, conversational strategies used to
negotiate meaning influence the route and
the rate of SLA.
end 2014

4. THE MONITOR MODEL

THE FIVE HYPHOTHESES (Krashen)
1.THE ACQUISITION LEARNING HYPOTHESIS
2.THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS;

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES ARE ACQUIRED

IN A PREDICTABLE ORDER.
3.THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS: THE DEVICE THAT
THE LERNERS USE TO EDIT THEIR LANGUAGE
PERFORMANCE.
4.THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS: ( THE i + 1)
5.THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
end 2014

Krashens Five Hypotheses

(Continued)
3 The Monitor Hypothesis attempts to explain how acquisition and learning
are used. Language is normally produced using our acquired linguistic
competence. Conscious learning has only one functionas the Monitor or
Editor. After we produce some language using the acquired system, we
sometimes inspect it and use our learned system to correct errors. This can
happen internally before we actually speak or write, or as a self-correction
after we produce the utterance or written text.
4 Comprehensible Input Hypothesis contends that more comprehensible input
results in more acquisition.
5

The Affective Filter Hypothesis claims that affective variables do not impact
language acquisition directly, but can prevent input from reaching what
Chomsky called the Language Acquisition Device. The LAD is the part of the
brain that is responsible for language acquisition.

end 2014

Language ACQUISITION AND

LEARNING

ACQUISITION:
NATURAL,
UNCONSCIOUS,
UNINTENIONALLY,
NATURAL
SETTING/INFORMAL
INSTRUCTION

end 2014

LEARNING:
NOT NATURAL,
CONSCIOUS,
INTENTIONALLY,
CLASSROOM/
FORMAL
INSTRUCTION

INPUT, INTERACTION AND

SLA
IN NATURAL SETTING
MOTHERESE: 1) AN AID TO COMMUNICATION,2) A

LANGUAGE TEACHING AND 3)A SOCIALIZATION

FUNCTION.
FOREIGNER TALK: INTERACTIONAL ADJUSTMENT
IN CLASSROOM SETTING
TEACHER TALK: ADJUSTMENT (FORMAL AND
INTERACTIONAL)
INTERACTION ANALYSIS: TURN TAKING, STS-T,T-ST
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
end 2014

Other Critical Factors That Affect L2

Acquisition
Walqui 3 categories
that affect second
language learning

Language
language distance
knowledge of L2
L1 proficiency
end 2014

Learner
motivation for L2
support from home
classroom diversity

Learning Process
style of learning
cultural of learner
interactions

end 2014

end 2014

end 2014

end 2014

Tips For Teachers

First and foremost get to know your

students.
Design lessons with social interactions in
mind to encourage linguistic interactions.
Keep students motivated
Incorporate the students cultures use
books etc..
Make it important to the students use
real life situations.
end 2014

Provide many opportunities for academic and

social interactions in the classroom

Use cooperative learning whenever possible
and use heterogeneous groups
Encourage continued learning of L2
Provide continuous feedback to students

end 2014

INDIVIDUAL TASKS
OBSERVE YOUR OWN CLASSROOM, FIND OUT

AND DISCUSS :
1.CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS
2.TEACHER TALK
3.LEARNER STRATEGIES
4.COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
5.INPUT AND OUTPUT
AND HOW THEY RELATE TO TEACHING
PROCEDURES USED .
end 2014

References
Cummins, J. (1979a). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic

interdependence, the optimal age question and some other matters. Working
Papers in Bilingualism. No. 19 (pp. 197-205). Toronto: Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education.

Ellis, R. (2003). The study of second language acquisition (10th ed.). Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Gass, S.,& Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Mahwah,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language

learning. Oxford: Pergamon press.

Thomas, W., & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority
end 2014

students. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education Resource Collection

Series, No. 9.

Resources on Second Language Acquisition

Main SLA Approaches

view at: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/index.htm

Glossary of terms on first and second language acquisition
view at: http://earthrenewal.org/secondlang.htm
ESL/Bilingual Resource Guide for Mainstream Teachers
view at: http://www.pps.k12.or.us/curriculum/PDFs/ESL_Modifications.pdf
Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition by Stephen D
Krashen online book which is full of information
view at:
http://www.sdkrashen.com/Principles_and_Practice/Principles_and_Practice.pd
f
Creating Teaching Practices within ESL Environments: Understanding Second
Language Acquisition Concepts a PowerPoint resource
view at:
https://www.azbn.gov/documents/news/2010/educators-retreat/Lavache.2n
d%20Language%20Acquisition.pdf

end 2014