CHY 102

Introductory Lecture
Selected Topics From Chapters
1, 2 & 3: Measurement
Systme Internationale Units
Dimensional Analysis
Significant Figures
Daltons Atomic Theory
Elements and the Periodic Table
Molecules and Compounds

Self Study Refresh Your Memory

Physical and chemical changes 1.1
Physical and chemical properties 1.1
Energy 1.2

Metric System and SI

Invented by scientists
Rational system of measures
Based (originally) on
measurement of the earth
properties of gases, liquid water & magnetic

fields

Systme International
consistent set of metric units
base units include metre, kg and second (MKS)
4

The Kelvin Temperature Scale

Based on Charless Law of gases
Isobars intersect temp axis at -273C

(absolute
zero).
K and C scales same
except for 273.15
offset.
T = t(K/C) + 273.15K

1.00 bar
2.00 bar
4.00 bar

Examples Derived SI
Units
Volume:
Force:

kgms-2
Pressure:
Nm-2
Energy:
Power:
Frequency:
Electrical charge:
Electrical potential:

cu. metre (m3) = 103 L

newton
(N) = 1
pascal

(Pa) = 1

joule
watt
hertz
coulomb
volt

(J) = 1 Nm
(W) = 1 Js-1
(Hz) = 1 s-1
(C) = 1 As
(V) = 1 JC-1
8

Solving Problems with SI Units

(0)
(1)
(2)
(3)

Read the question carefully.

Decide on an approach (choose equation).
Convert all given quantities to SI units.
Substitute all converted values WITH UNITS
into equation. Make sure that dimensional
analysis gives reasonable final units.
(4) Enter numbers into calculator and crunch.
(5) Convert answer to units required by
question (if necessary).
10

Example
What is the pressure in bar of 1.30 mol of ideal
gas at 25C in a 1.62 L vessel?
(1) Decide on approach: Ideal gas law
PV = nRT
R = gas constant = 8.3145 J K-1mol-1 (SI)

11

(2) Convert Units to SI

n = 1.30 mol (already SI)
T = t(K/C) + 273.15 K = 298.15 K
V = (1.62 L)(10-3 m3/L) = 1.62 10-3 m3
(3) Enter Values WITH UNITS
P = nRT/V
= (1.30 mol)(8.3145 J K-1mol-1) (298.15 K)
(1.62 10-3 m3)
= 1.99106 J m-3 = 1.99106 Nmm-3
= 1.99106 Nm-2 = 1.99 106 Pa
12

Units will be Pa: Why?

Carrying the units is good check of method.
(4) Convert to desired units (bar)
1 bar = 105 Pa
P = (1.99 x 106 Pa)x(1 bar)/(105 Pa)
= 19.9 bar (final answer)
13

Dimensional Analysis
Conversion of units = dimensional

analysis.
Two levels recommended
Convert to SI units BEFORE calculation
Cancel units during calculation as a check

Redundancy helps avoid silly errors.

Remember: tests are MC so accuracy

counts!
14

Example
Work of expansion:
w = - Pext V
(w<0 indicates work done on surroundings)
cylinder
Pext
release
constraint

piston
gas

What is the work of

expansion (in joules)
when a volume of gas
increases from 2.00 L
to 5.00 L under a
constant pressure of
3.55 atm?
15

How NOT to Proceed:

w = - PextV
= - Pext(Vf - Vi)
= - (3.55)(5.00 - 2.00)
= - 10.65

No units for given quantities or for answer

No consideration of significant figures
No thought about dimensional analysis at

INCORRECT!
16

The Right Way

Convert units to SI
Pext = (3.55 atm) (101 325 Pa/atm) = 3.597 x 10 5
Pa
V = Vf - Vi = 5.00 L - 2.00 L = 3.00 L
= (3.00 L)x(1 m3/1000 L) = 3.00 x 10-3 m3
Substitute values WITH UNITS
w = - Pext V = -(3.597 x 105 Pa)(3.00 x 10-3 m3)
= - 1.08 x 103 Pam3 = - 1.08 x 103 Nm-2m3
= - 1.08 x 103 Nm = - 1.08 x 103 J
17

Conversion factors equiv. to

1
e.g. Convert 8.00 inch-lbs into Nm:

2.54 cm
1m
4.44822 N
8.00 in lb

1 in
100 cm
1 lb
= 0.904 Nm
Notes:
(1) Converting units changes appearance only
(2) Precision of 1st and 2nd conversion factors is
infinite
(3) Precision of the answer is 3 figures because of 18

Precision and Accuracy

Precision: reproducibility of a measurement.
Accuracy: deviation from the true value of

a measurement.
A measurement can be precise without

being accurate
The other way round is hard to demonstrate

19

Example: 5.00 ppm Zn by 3

methods
Method 1:
4.990
4.991
4.996
5.008
5.008
5.005
5.008

Method 2:
5.504
5.495
5.494
5.498
5.508
5.494
5.507

Method 3:
4.790
4.271
5.075
4.883
5.574
4.801
5.945

Mean:
4.997
95% CI:
0.005
(Good

Mean:
5.501
95% CI: 0.004
(Poor accuracy,
good
precision.)

Mean: 4.884
95% CI: 0.557
(Poor accuracy
and precision.)
20

Significant Figures
ALL MEASUREMENTS ARE APPROXIMATE
Digits in a value reflect the precision; e.g.,
2.5 g implies 2.5 0.1 g
2.50 g implies 2.50 0.01 g

Sig. digits are essential to doing calculations:

A calculated value cannot have higher precision

than the measurements used to produce it.

Scientists and engineers who report more
figures than are significant look foolish to their
colleagues.
21

Exact Numbers
NOT ALL NUMBERS USED IN CALCULATIONS

ARE MEASUREMENTS
Counting numbers
e.g. If you have 2 shoes, the 2 has no error

Defined scalar quantities

The value of a dime is exactly 10 cents
Defined conversion factors
There are exactly 2.54 cm per inch
There are exactly 101 325 Pa per atm
22

Rules for Significant Figures

1) All non-zero digits in a value are significant
2) Zeros between 2 sig. figs are significant
3) Zeros at the end of a value after the

decimal place are significant; e.g. 0.200 has

3 sig. figs.
4) Leading zeros are not significant; e.g.
0.00200 has 3 significant figures
5) Zeros at end before decimal place are
ambiguous

Best to use scientific notation

e.g. 13,700 (3, 4, or 5 sig. figs); 1.370104 has 4
23

Significant Figure
Examples
Value
Significant Figures
4: rules 2 & 3
1.010103 m2
1 010 m2

3, maybe 4: rules 2 and 5

1 010.0 m2

5: rules 2 & 3

1.000103 m2

4: rule 3

103 m2

0: exponents are not significant

0.0001 m2

1: rule 4
24

Significant Digits and Calculations

Multiplication and Division:
Result has same number of sig. digits as in the

measurement with the fewest significant digits

e.g. (0.234 m)x(10.01 m) = 2.3423 m2 = 2.34
m2

Addition and Subtraction:

The result is reported with the precision of the

least precise measurement

e.g. 10.01 m + 0.234 m = 10.244 m = 10.24
m
25

Significant Digits and Calculations

Logarithms:
Result has same number of sig. figures after

the decimal point (called the mantissa) as

there are sig. figures in the number whose
logarithm is being calculated.
e.g. log(6.2 x 103) = 3.7924 = 3.79
mantissa

Antilogarithms:

Result has the same number of sig. figures as

there are in the mantissa.

e.g. e3.349 = 28.4742 = 28.5
26

Example 1
V = (1.15 m)(6.01 m)(22.0 m) + (32.0 m 3)
= 152.053 m3 + 32.0 m3
= (a) 184 m3
(b) 184.1 m3
(c) 1.8102 m3?
ANS: (a) 184 m3
Three significant figures: 1st term = 152 m3.
Significant figures follow rules of order of operations.
27

Example 2
V = (1.339 m)(6.80 m)(0.016 m) + 38 L
= 0.145 683 2 m3 + (38 L)(10-3 m3/L)
= 0.145 683 2 m3 + 0.038 m3
= (a) 0.1837 m3
(b) 0.184 m3
(c) 0.18 m3?
ANS: (c) 0.18 m3
Two sig. figs because 0.016 m has two figures.
Terms are additive only if they have the same units.
28

Rules for Rounding Off

ROUND OFF AT THE END OF A CALCULATION
If numeral to right of last sig. digit <5, then

truncate:

e.g. 6.02249 N = 6.022 N

If numeral to right of last sig. digit 5, round

up:

e.g. 6.02157 N = 6.022 N

29

Suggested Chapter 1
Exercises
Review Questions 2-20.
Problems by Topic, Cumulative Problems,

Challenge Problems: 23, 25, 27, 29, 37, 47,

53, 57, 59, 63, 65, 67, 71, 77, 81, 85, 95, 107,
109
Note: answers to all odd-numbered problems
are found in Appendix III.

30

Daltons Atomic
Theory of Matter
Nothing Exists Per Se Except
Atoms and the Void
- Lucretius (ca. 94-51 BC)

31

Postulate 1
All matter is composed of indivisible
units called atoms.
An atom retains its identity during chemical
reactions
BrBr-

HC

Cl Cl

CH
32

Postulate 2
An element is a type of matter composed
of only one kind of atom
In the original theory, each atom of an element
was thought to have the same physical
properties (e.g. mass) of all the other atoms in
a sample of that element
We now know that an element may have
several isotopes (atoms of different mass)
What determines the identity of an element?
33

Postulate 3
A compound is a type of matter composed
of atoms of two or more elements
chemically combined in fixed proportions
Law of Constant Composition
Is ozone, O3, a compound? Explain.
Are N2O and NO2 the same compound?
Is air (composed of 20% oxygen and 80%
nitrogen by weight) a compound?
34

Postulate 4
A chemical reaction consists of the
rearrangement of the atoms present in
the reacting substances to give new
chemical combinations present in the
substances formed by the reaction
Is the following a chemical reaction?
H + ClH HCl + H

35

Natural Laws from Daltons Theory

Law of conservation of matter (from postulates 2

and 4)
exceptions: high-energy collisions & decay processes

Law of definite proportions (also called the law

of constant composition) (from postulate 3)

All samples of a given compound, regardless of their

source or preparation, have the same proportions of their

constituent elements.

Law of multiple proportions (from postulate 3)

If elements A and B can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of B that can combine with a
given mass of A are in the ratio of small, whole numbers.
36

Example of Multiple Proportions

10.5 g of nitrogen (N2) combines with 12.0 g of
oxygen (O2) to form a gas, A. Under different
conditions, 17.5 g of N2 combine with 10.1 g of O2 to
form a gas, B. Show that compounds A and B obey
the law of multiple proportions.
ANS: show that the mass of N2 per g of O2 needed to
form B is a simple ratio of that needed to
form A.

B: (17.5 g) (10.1 g) = 1.73 g N2

per g O2

37

Elemental Symbols
Mass number (i.e. the
number of protons
and neutrons--not
exactly the same as
the atomic mass)
goes here.

Ionic charge (if any)

goes here

Cl

35
17

Atomic number
(number of protons)
goes here (although it
is not often included)

The symbol is read chlorine-35.

It is one of two isotopes of chlorine,
the other being 37Cl (chlorine-37).
38

Isotopes
Elements identity established by atomic

number.
Different isotopes of an element differ in their
atomic masses
Due to different numbers of neutrons; e.g.,
12C has 6 protons and 6 neutrons

13

C has 6 protons and 7 neutrons.

An atom of a specific isotope is called a

nuclide
39

Atomic and Molecular

Masses
Atomic mass unit (amu)
1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12 (12C)
1 amu = 1.66054 10-27 kg
1 kg = 6.02214 1026 amu
1 g = 6.02214 1023 amu

40

The Mole (abbrev.= mol)

Number of atoms in 12 g of

12

1 mole = 6.0221023

Avogadros number (NA)

6.022x1023 mol-1 (note the units)

NOTE: Molar mass (in g/mol) is numerically

equal to the atomic mass (in amu)

41

Average Atomic Masses

Masses in periodic table are averages
average of naturally occurring isotopes
e.g. Bromine occurs as 79Br (78.918336

amu) and 81Br (80.916289 amu), in 50.69%

and 49.31% abundance, respectively. What
is the average atomic weight (mass) of Br?
AWBr = (0.5069)(78.918336)+(0.4931)
(80.916289)
= 79.90 amu (4 significant digits)
42

Example Problem: Try at home

e.g. Cl has atomic mass of 35.453 amu, and with
35Cl (m
37Cl (m
35 = 34.969 amu) and
37 = 36.966
amu). What are the relative abundances of
the isotopes?
Abundances (X35 and X37) must add to 1;
therefore, we have two equations
(1) X37 + X35 = 1 and
(2) X37m37 + X35m35 = 35.453
Solving we find X35 = 0.75764 and X37 = 0.24236
43

The Periodic Table

IUPAC

Atomic symbol
N.A. Standard

44

Suggested Chapter 2
Exercises
Review Questions: 3, 4, 12-18, 21-26.
Problems by Topic, Cumulative Problems,

Challenge Problems: 29, 35, 43, 49, 57, 59,

61, 67, 69, 73, 75, 77, 81, 83, 103, 109.
Note: answers to all odd-numbered problems
are found in Appendix III.

45

Molecules, Compounds,
and all that

46

Elements and
Compounds

47

Molecules
A molecule is a neutral, discrete assembly

of two or more atoms that are chemically

bound
Properties are different elements
comprising it
Most elements do not occur as atoms
e.g. oxygen is normally O2 or O3 (ozone)
The noble gases occur as atoms
This is not to say that most elements occur as

molecules. . .
48

If not molecules then what?

Molecular elements include: H2, N2, O2, S8, P4,

F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2

Metals and metalloids occur as extended
structures
It is incorrect to talk about molecules of
elemental metals
Partial structure of elemental metal

49

Molecular Compounds
Consist of discrete units (molecules)
Contain more than one element
e.g. Water, H2O; hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2

Most comprised of non-metals,

e.g. organic compounds contain C, H, N, O, S,

etc.

Molecules with metals possible; e.g. Fe(CO) 5

BUT: Most metal-containing compounds are

extended structures; e.g. TiO2

50

Molecular vs. Empirical Formulae

Molecular formula gives the actual

numbers and types of atoms in a molecule

e.g. Ethene: C2H4

Empirical formula gives the relative

numbers and types of atoms in a molecule

e.g. Ethene: CH2

Molecular structure shows

H

connectivity of atoms

C=C

H
51

Ions and Ionic

Compounds
Ions are charged atoms or molecules
Positive charge: cations, e.g. Na+
Negative: anions, e.g. ClSimple ions
e.g. Na+, Cl-, S2-

Polyatomic ions
e.g. SO42-, HPO42-, CO32-

52

Why form ions?

Charges complete noble gas

configuration
complete valence electron shell

Metal atoms tend to lose electrons

e.g. Na([Ne]3s1) Na+([Ne]) + e-

Non-metals tend to gain electrons

e.g. Cl([Ne]3s23p5) + e- Cl-([Ar])

NOTE: electrons, not protons

53

Main-Group Monatomic
Ions

54

Main-Group Monatomic
Ions

55

Polyatomic Ions
Molecule stable if all atoms have noble gas config.
Molecular ions take charges to attain noble gas config.

Neutral NO3

O
O
N O
_
+

Nitrate: NO3e

O
O
N
O
_
_
+

Octet not satisfied

56

Polyatomic Ions
Learn Table 3.3: names &

formulas of common
polyatomic ions

57

Self Study (3.4):

Nomenclature
Simple cations and anions
e.g. Cu+ = copper(I); O2- = oxide

Polyatomic oxo-anions and acid forms

e.g. NO3-= nitrate; HCO3- = hydrogen carbonate

Ionic compounds
e.g. Cu2O = copper(I) oxide

Acids
e.g. HClO4 = perchloric acid

Binary molecular compounds

e.g. NO2 = nitrogen dioxide
58

Suggested Chapter 3
Exercises
Review Questions: 1-11.
Problems by Topic, Cumulative Problems,

Challenge Problems: 23, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35,

37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53.
Note: answers to all odd-numbered problems
are found in Appendix III.

59