Plate Tectonics

Convergent Boundaries occur where oceanic lithosphere is pushed

back into the mantle, marked by oceanic trenches
and subduction zones. Two types are possible
When two plates of oceanic lithosphere converge, one of the oceanic
lithosphere is subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere.

When ocean lithosphere runs into a plate with

continental lithosphere, the oceanic lithosphere is
subducted beneath the continental lithosphere.

Hotspot = an area in the Earth's mantle where hot material from the
Earth's interior is moving upward

Hot spots

Hot spot in Hawaii

Types of Volcanoes

Diagram illustrating how calderas are formed

Collapsed of the summit

summit subside

Structure of volcanoes
Many volcanoes contain a large depression
Craters
= small depressions (i.e. less than 1 km across)
= most craters result from the explosive activity by which the volcanic
vent is cleared
Calderas
= over 1 km across are called calderas
= most calderas result from subsidence produced by the removal of large
volumes of the underlying magma
Many present-day craters and calderas are filled with water, giving crater
lakes.

Evolution of Volcanoes
An active volcanic landscape

Evolution of Volcanoes
A volcanic landscape after a million years
or so

Classes of Eruption
A. Effusive eruptions erupt mostly lava (generally basalt) and
have little explosive activity.
B. Explosive eruptions are, well, explosive.

Volcanic Explosivity Index

= logarithmic, each step is about 10 times larger than the
previous step
Ind
Description
ex

Plume Height

Volume of Ejecta Classification

Example

non-explosive

< 100 m

1000's m3

Icelandic, Hawaiian

Kilauea

gentle

100-1000 m

10,000's m3

Hawaiian, Strombolian

Stromboli

explosive

1-5 km

1,000,000's m3

Strombolian, Vulcanian

Galeras, 1992

severe

3-15 km

10,000,000's m3

Vulcanian

Nevado Ruiz, 1985

cataclysmic

10-25 km

100,000,000's m3

Vulcanian, Plinian

Galunggung, 1982

paroxysmal

>25 km

1 km3

Plinian

St. Helens, 1980

colossal

>25 km

10's km3

Plinian, Ultra-Plinian

Krakatau, 1883

super-colossal

>25 km

100's km3

Ultra-Plinian

Tambora, 1815

mega-colossal

>25 km

1,000's km3

Ultra-Plinian

Yellowstone, 2 Ma

Some notes on the Explosivity Index

Proposed by Chris Newhall of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1982 as a
means of quantifying the violence of eruptions.
Volume refers only to material ejected explosively; Hawaiian and
Icelandic eruptions may erupt vast volumes of lava but eject very little
material explosively.
The index isn't really concerned with material that falls immediately
around the vent. Hawaii is noted for spectacular fire fountains and the
total material ejected may be quite large, pushing the upper end of
explosivity 1, but the material mostly falls back around the vent.

Effusive Eruptions
Icelandic
Lava simply issues from fissures without building a volcano, though repeated
activity may build shields. The greatest historic example was the Laki fissure flow
of 1783, which killed about a fifth of the population of Iceland, mostly through
crop and livestock destruction. Explosivity index 0. Note that merely being in
Iceland doesn't make an Icelandic eruption; the Icelandic volcano Hekla has
some of the largest explosive eruptions in history.
Hawaiian
Basalt issues from long-lived central vents and builds shield volcanoes.
Explosivity index 0-1.

Explosive Eruptions
Phreatic
Steam explosions caused when lava or magma comes in contact with water. Large
events may blast out craters called maars. The few explosive eruptions on Hawaii
have been phreatic. One in 1790 killed several members of a Hawaiian war party
passing close to Kilauea. Another series occurred at Kilauea in 1924 and one
person was killed by flying ejecta. Explosivity index 0-1 in most cases but maar
eruptions may go as high as 3 or so.
Strombolian
Named for Stromboli, Italy, which has been popping mildly since Roman times and
is nicknamed "lighthouse of the Mediterranean." Mild, long-lasting explosive
activity confined to the immediate vent area. Typically associated with small
stratovolcanoes (they don't erupt much material) and basalt or andesite lava.
Explosivity index 1-2
Vulcanian
Named for Vulcano, Italy, from which we also get the term volcano. Typical
explosive eruption, with a large eruption cloud but not much pyroclastic flows.
Generally associated with andesite stratovolcanoes. Explosivity index 2-4

Explosive Eruptions
Plinian
Named for Pliny the Younger, who left a description of the eruption of Vesuvius in
79 A.D., and his uncle Pliny the Elder, who died in the eruption. Large eruption
cloud, pyroclastic flows, and may collapse to create a caldera. Andesite or
rhyolite stratovolcanoes. Mount Pelee, 1902 and Mount St. Helens, 1980 are
examples. Explosivity index 4-6
Caldera-Forming (Ultra-Plinian)
Catastrophic eruption usually associated with rhyolite stratovolcanoes or magma
chamber collapse. Extremely large volume of pyroclastic flows that may travel for
long distances. Tambora, 1815, Krakatoa, 1883, Katmai, 1912 and Mount
Pinatubo, 1991 were historic examples. Mount Mazama 7000 years ago and
Thera (Santorini) about 1500 B.C. are other famous cases. Explosivity index 6-8

Krakatoa volcano, Indonesia erupted violently in 1883

Prior to eruption, Krakatoa island group consisted of one large and two
smaller volcanic islands lying around and within a prehistoric caldera
1883 eruption resulted in the removal of two of the three volcanic cones and
the area between the three remaining remnant islands was filled by the sea to
a depth of 250 m.
eruptions began in May of 1883 with small explosions, large eruption (among
the largest ever witnessed by people) occurred between 26 - 27 August and
could be heard from a distance of 1000 km.
Tsunamis over 40 m in height killed 36,000 people on the islands of Java and
Sumatra.
clouds of ash expelled were so dense that Jakarta (some 160 km away) was
in total darkness by midday 27 August. Eruption cloud rose to a height of over
80 km and fell over an area of 800,000 km2. Large (i.e. over 0.5 m across)
fragments fell over an area of 100 km2.
About 20 km3 of ash erupted into the atmosphere, causing unusually cold
weather for the next few years as the ash helped to black out the sun's rays.

Products of Eruptions
Lava Flows
Pyroclastic Debris
Bombs
Lapilli
Ash
Mudflows
Landslides

Gases
Steam
Carbon Dioxide
H2S
SO2
HCl
HF

Active Volcanoes in the Philippines (total 22 accdg Philvolcs)

Name of Volcano

Location

Type

Babuyan Claro

Babuyan Is.

Stratovolcano

843

920

1917

Taal

Batangas

25-30 km
caldera lake
(500-100Tya)

400

xx

1977

Mt Mayon

Albay

Stratovolcano

2463

xx

2006

Mt Bulusan

Sorsogon

Stratovolcano

1,565

15,000

2007

Mt Parker

Cotabato

Stratovolcano

1,824

40,000

1641

Mt Banahaw*

Quezon

complex

2,158

Xx

unknown

Mt Biliran

Biliran Is,
Leyte

complex

1,301

xx

1939

Bud Dajo

Jolo

Cinder cone

620

9,500

1897

Cagua

Cagayan

stratovolcano

1,160

1,200

1907

Camiguin de
Babuyanes

Babuyan Is

stratovolcano

712

3,200

1857

Didicas

Babuyan Is

Dome volcano

228

1,200

1990

* dormant

Elevation
(m)

base (m)

Last
eruption

Name of
Volcano

Location

Type

Mt Hibok Hibok

Camiguin

stratovolcano

1,332

1,000

1952

Mt Iraya

Batanes

xx

1,009

5,500

1454

Mt Iriga

Camarines Sur

stratovolcano

1,143

10,000

1642

Mt Kanlaon

Negros Is.

stratovolcano

2,435

30,000

2006

Makaturing

Lanao del Sur

stratovolcano

1,940

29,000

1882

Mt Matutum

South Cotabato

stratovolcano

2,286

25,000

1911

Leonard
Kniaseff

Compostela
Valley

Strato in 203
caldera lake

1,190

xx

120 AD

Musuan

Bukidnon

Lava dome

646

3,000

1867

Pinatubo

Tarlac,Pampanga, stratovolcano
Zambales

1486*

xx

1991, 1993

Smith volcano/
Mt Babuyan

Babuyan Is.

Cinder cone,
stratovolcano

688

4,500

1924

Ragang

Lanao sur/Cot

stratovolcano

2815

32,000

1916

Mt Apo

Cot, Davao

stratovolcano

2,954

* height 1,745m before eruption

Elevation
(m)

base (km)

Last
eruption

unknown

Bukidnon, 4.5 km south of Valencia or 81 km southeast of Cagayan de Oro City

(752'N, 12504.4' E)

Cotabato, approximately 30 aerial kilometers west of General Santos City

and 44 kilometers south of Marbel (606.8' N, 12453.5' E)

Cotabato, 15 km north of Polomolok, South Cotabato and around 30 km

north-northwest of General Santos City (622'N, 12506.5'E)

PARKER (606.8' N, 12453.5' E)

Approximately 30 aerial kilometers west of GSC
and 44 kilometers south of Marbel
MUSUAN (752'N, 12504.4' E)
Bukidnon, 4.5 km S of Valencia or 81 km SE of CDO
MATUTUM (622'N, 12506.5'E)
Cotabato, 15 km N of Polomolok, 30 km N-NW og GSC
RAGANG (741.5 N, 12430.3 E)
Boundaries of Lanao del Sur and Cotabato
MAKATURING (738.5N, 12420.5E)
Lanao del Sur
LEONARD KNIASEFF (722.9'N, 1262.8' E)
Compostela Valley

BABUYAN CLARO
Babuyan Islands, Cagayan
(1931.5'N, 121 57'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 0.843 km
Base Diameter: 0.920 m
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Basalt
Tectonic Setting: Babuyan (Bashi) Segment of Luzon-Taiwan Arc
Age of Deposits: 2.32+/-0.35 Ma -- 1480+/-50 B.P (H.Bellon, J.C. Philippet, Brest. 1984)
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 4
Year: 1831, 1860, 1913, 1917
Eruption Type: strombolian, phreatomagmatic
Volcanic Hazards: lava flow, tsunami

www.philvocs.dost.gov.ph

BANAHAW
Boundaries of Laguna and Quezon provinces
(1400N, 12129'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 2.169 km
Base Diameter: 25 km
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano, complex
Hotsprings: San Pablo-Tiaong hot/warm springs, Bakia warm/cold springs, Sampaloc warm springs, Mainit hot/warm springs
and Cagsiay hot/warm springs
Crater Lakes/Maars: Maars located south of Dolores: Lake Dagatan and Lake Ticab
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. San Cristobal (1470 m asl, W), Mt. Banahaw de Lucban (1875 m asl, NE), Buho and
Masalakot Domes (SW), Mt. Mayabobo
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Andesite
Tectonic Setting: Macolod Corridor
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 3
Year: 1730, 1743, 1843
Nature of eruption: explosive
Volcanic Hazards: debris avalanche, lahar and lake break-out

www.philvocs.dost.gov.ph

BUD DAJO
Sulu, 8.05 aerial km SE of Jolo
(5 59'N, 12113'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 0.62 km
Base Diameter: 9.5 km
Type of Volcano: Cinder Cone
Crater Lakes/Caldera/Maars: Lake Panamao
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Matanding (400 m asl, NE) Guimba (482 m asl, E) and Sungal (518 m asl, SE)
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Basalt
Tectonic Setting: Sulu Arc
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 2
Year: 1641 and 1897
Eruption Type: phreatic (?)

www.philvocs.dost.gov.ph

BULUSAN
Sorsogon Province, 70 km southeast of Mayon Volcano
and approximately 250 km SE of Manila (1246.2'N, 12403'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 1.559 km
Base Diameter: 15 km
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano formed inside a caldera
Hotsprings: San Benon, Mapaso, San Vicente, Masacrot
Craters and Fissure:
1. Crater No. 1 or Blackbird Lake - 20 m in diameter and 15 m deep
2. Crater No. 2 - roughly oval in shape, 60 m by 30 m and 15 m deep
3. Crater No. 3 - approximately 90 m in diameter and 20 m deep
4. Crater No. 4 - near the NE rim, opened during the 1981 eruption
Fissure - located below Crater No. 4, measuring 5 to 8 m wide and about 100 m long
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. Homahan, Mt. Binitacan, Mt. Batuan, Mt. Calungalan, Mt. Calaunan, Mt. TabonTabon, Mt. Juban and Mt. Jormajan
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Two-pyroxene andesite in Bulusan, dacite associated with caldera
Tectonic Setting: Bicol Volcanic Chain
Age of Deposits:
a) 1500300 years ( located at 1245'N, 12404'E)
b) 5,480150 years ( located at Mapaso Stream Valley, 1245'N, 12404'E)
c) 5,800100 years (located at a trail leading to Inlagadian, Casiguran, 1249'N, 12403'E)
d) 33,5001,500 years (located at Magallanes Road, Juban, NW of Bulusan Volcano, 1249'N, 12358'E, sample
taken from 30-40 m thick Irosin Caldera ashflow sheet)
SOURCE: Newhall, C. and Cruz, J. (Unpublished data)
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 16
Latest Eruption/Activity: 21 March - 28 June 2006
Eruption Type:
1. Phreatic (e.g. 1918-1922, 1980)
2. Strombolian (e.g. 1918-1919)
3. Caldera-forming (e.g. 40,000 YBP)

CAGUA
Cagayan, approximately 12 km south of
Gonzaga and 14 km south of
Port Irene (1813.3'N, 1227.4'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 1.16 km
Base Diameter: 12 km
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano
Hotsprings: Maasok Thermal Area(near the crater), Magrafil Thermal Area (NW), Manaring Thermal Area (5 km NNE)
San Jose Thermal Areas (10 km NNE), Kabinlangan (3 km NW) and Paminta (2 km NNW)
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Basalt, Andesite
Tectonic Setting: Babuyan (Bashi) Segment of Taiwan-Luzon Arc
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 2
Year: 1860 and 1907

DIDICAS
Babuyan Islands, Cagayan
(19 04.6'N, 12212.1'E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 0.228 km
Base Diameter: 1.2 km
Type of Volcano: Submarine/Dome
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Andesite
Tectonic Setting: Babuyan (Bashi) Segment of Luzon-Taiwan Arc
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 6
Year: 1773, 1856-1857, 1900, 1952, 1969, 1978 (Jan. 6-9, explosive, phreatic)
Eruption Type: Submarine, phreatic, dome building

HIBOK-HIBOK
Camiguin Island, located at the northwestern end of the Island
(912.2'N, 12440.5E)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Elevation: 1.332 km
Base Diameter: 10 km
Type of Volcano: Stratovolcano and dome complex
Hotsprings: Ardent Spring, Tangob, Bugong, Tagdo, Naasag, Kiyab
Crater Lakes/Maars:
CRATERS: Kanangkaan Crater (site of 1948 eruption)
Itum Crater (site of 1949 eruption)
Ilihan Crater (site of 1950 eruption)
MAAR: Taguines Lagoon (located between Binone and Maac)
Adjacent Volcanic Edifice: Mt. Vulcan ( 671 m high asl, NW of Hibok-Hibok ), Mt. Mambajao (center of Camiguin), Mt.
Ginsiliban (581 m high asl, southernmost Camiguin), Mt. Uhay (N of Mount Ginsiliban); Domes and cones: Campana Hill,
Minokol Hill, Tres Marias Hill, Mt. Carling, Mt. Tibane, Piyakong Hill
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Rock Type: Hornblende andesite and dacite
Tectonic Setting: Central Mindanao Arc
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Number of Historical Eruptions: 5
Latest Eruption/Activity: 1948 Sept. 31 - 1953 July
Eruption Type:
1. Pelean (e.g. 1948-1952)
2. Dome building with nuee ardente (e.g. 1871, 1949-1953)
3. Solfataric activity with subterranean sounds ( e.g. 1897-1902)
Eruption Sites during the 1948-1952 eruptions: Kanangkaan Crater (1948), Itum Crater (1949) and c) Ilihan Crater
(1950).