Coulombs law

x t

Matter is composed of charged objects affected by

electric (& magnetic) forces

Charge is quantized and comes in two varieties

dubbed positive and negative

Different charges attract, like repel

The Coulomb force varies as 1 2
r
The Coulomb force obeys superposition

Quantitative experiments establish the magnitude

of the Coulomb force

q1

F21

q1q2
F12 k 2 r12
r12

F12

q2

Electric Field

E
expresses
the
consequence
of
charge

E reports force on test charge particle: F q0 E

Point charge q: E r 1 q2 r
Field point
Superposition:

4 0 r

qi

ri
Replace sum by integral for continuous distribution

Electric Flux and Gauss law

Represent E by field lines

From positive to negative

Density proportional to E

E is tangent to field lines

Define flux of vector field through surface

E dA lim

Ai

i E ri Ai

Ai

Non-zero flux of vector field through closed

E ri
surface springs from or ends in the interior

Gauss law relates flux of electric field through any

closed surface with enclosed electric charge

Q
enc
E
E
d
A

Gauss law: Applications

For simple charge distributions:

Symmetry determines field configuration
Gauss law determines the magnitude

Q
enc
E
d
A

Conductor: Charge moves in response to E

E 0 & =0 within conductor in equilibrium

Net charge density only at surface of conductor

Field normal to surface of conductor:

E n
0

Electric Potential Energy

Work by Coulomb force is path independent

q
q
(conservative force)
1

Work done by Coulomb force

rf

rf

ri rf

q2

q1q2
1
q1q2 1 1

W ri rf F d s
dr

4 0 ri r ^ 2
4 0 ri rf
ri

U is my work to affect change

q1q2 1 1
U ri rf W ri rf

4 0 rf ri

My work to assemble charge configuration:

qi qj
1
U system

4 0 pairs rij

Electric Potential

V r is work to place unit charge at r

V r

1
Qi

4 0 i r ri

From potential tor electric field:

V r E(r ') dr '

r0

From potential to electric field:

Procedures for calculating E r

V V V
E V
i
j
k
x
y
z

Brute

Sneaky

Qi

V r

Capacitance

Charge displaced between disconnected

conductors is proportional to potential difference

q CV

The constant of proportionality, C , characterizes

the conducting structure

To calculate capacitance:

q from plate 1 to 2

E r

a) Mentally displace charge

b) Determine the resulting

c) Using convenient path calculate:

1

C q E r ds
2

E r

Capacitors: connected & enhanced

Polarizable medium in capacitor reduces E r

E r
E r 0 So capacitance increases C C0

Energy stored in capacitor

1
2
u

E
So energy density
0
2
Alternate route to C:calculate energy, U, then
1
U CV 2
2

C 2U

V2

Connecting capacitors:
Series: smaller 1 1 1 1
Parallel: larger C C1 C2 C2

C C1 C2 C3

Current and Resistance

Resistivity and conductivity are materials properties:

conductivity=

1
resistivity

Resistance is property of materials and geometry:

L
R
A

Terminal characteristics for resistor:

I
I
Series connection of resistors:
Req i Ri
V IR
V IR
+

R2

R1

Parallel connection of resistors:

R
1
1
i
Req
Ri

V IR
V IR

Power delivered by battery:

Power dissipated in resistor:

R2

V IR

ReqV R1IR
R2
-

R
V RIR
Req 1 2
R1 R2

P RI 2 V 2 / R

Circuit Analysis

Kirchoffs laws

I I
V 0
in

out

Charge conservation
Energy conservation

loop

Analysis of multi-loop circuit

Simplify circuit
Define suitable variables (currents or potentials)
Write down Kirchoff #1
Write down Kirchoff #2
Solve the linear equations

Dynamic Circuits: RC

RC circuit: systematic approach:

Write Kirchoffs equations considering initial conditions
dq
Use relationship between current and charge: I
dt
Solve linear differential equation
Match solution to initial conditions

RC circuit: quick solution

x t x x 0 x exp t , RC

R is resistance the capacitor, C, looks into

x 0
x 0

is value immediately following step disturbance

is value far later where all capacitors open circuit

2
Q
Recall energy is stored in capacitor: U 12 CV 2
2C

Effects of the magnetic B

field

B-field exerts force

on moving
charged particle

FB qv B

B never works: dWB FB v dt q v B v dt 0
Spiraling charged particles: qB / m
Crossed E-B fields:

Rutherfords discovery of electron: m/ q (B2 L2

Hall effect (discovered here): V (IB / nqd)

/ 2yE)

Force on current carrying wire: dFB i dL B
H

Torque on current-coil: B where =NiA

Energy of magnetic dipole in B-field:

U B

Where B-fields come from

Force between parallel current carrying wires:

0ia
Fba ibL
2 d
This implies current carrying wire generates field
0 i
B
2 R
For general current distribution Biot-Savart:

Amperes law

Amperes law relates a closed loop integral to the

enclosed current:

Bd
s

i
0
enc

Any current distribution

Any closed path

Field in solenoid with winding density, n, current, i

B 0 ni

Motional EMF & Faradays

law
Moving with respect to B-field:
E v B

Motional EMF:

V Eds

Generalize the result through definition of B-flux

B BdA

Equivalent formulation of Faradays law

Lenz: Induced current counteracts change in flux

d
Eds

BdA

dt

Inductors and R-L Circuits

Faradays law implies a change in current is met

by an opposing electric potential

dI
VL
dt

For long solenoid

L 0 n volume
Time constant for LR circuit: L
R
Energy stored in inductor: U 1 LI 2
2
N B LI

Magnetic energy density:

Mutual inductance:

1
2 0

dI 1
N2 2 M 21 I 1 V2 M 21
dt

Circuits that Oscillate (L-C & R-L-C)

LC circuit supports oscillations with

resonance angular frequency 1

0
LC
Energy oscillates between electric and magnetic
forms in capacitor and inductor respectively

RLC circuit can support damped oscillations with

frequency 1 R and time cnst: L

0
LC 2L
R
To derive the differential equation write loop
2

equation for q(t)

Complex numbers greatly simplify solutions

AC Circuits: Analysis with phasors

Circuits consisting of linear elements (R, L, C)

respond harmonically when driven harmonically

Generalized relationship between AC current and

AC voltage : Vm=ImZ here Zis called Impedance

Voltage and current are not generally in phase:

Resistor:
Inductor:

Vm I mR

voltage and current in phase

Vm I m L current lags voltage

1 voltage lags current
Capacitor:
Vm I m
C RLC circuit
Use Phasors to analyze

Analysis of resonance with Phasors

Generalized relationship between AC current and

AC voltage : Vm=ImZ here Zis called Impedance

Voltage and current are not generally in phase:

Resistor:

Vm I mR

Inductor:

Vm I m L
1
Vm I m
C

Capacitor:

voltage and current in phase

current lags voltage by
voltage lags current by

Use Phasors to analyze RLC circuit

Average power dissipated: P 12 mI m cos rms I rms cos

Ideal Transformer (AC!):

V1 N1

V2 N2

Maxwells term & waves

1831-1879

1775-1836

Maxwell fixes Ampere:

d E

Bds 0 I enc 0 0 dt

Ampere

Maxwell
equations
imply wave equation:
2
2
2

Solutions: travelling waves with speed

Ey
Ey
0 0 2 0
2
x
t

c 1

Maxwell

Bz
Bz
0 0 2 0
2
x
t
2

0 0

EM-waves exist in vacuum accounting for micro-waves

to visible light to gamma rays and beyond
B
E
Transverse polarized: propagation
Emalong

c
Bm
A fixed ratio of amplitudes:

Polarization, Reflection & Refraction

c
Light slows in matter: v
where n r r 1
n

Matching E and B across interface implies:

In-plane components of wave vectors match:
Medium n1

k1i 1

Medium n2 > n1

k1r

k2

This implies incident

n sinand
reflected
n sin angles match
1

I r n1 n2

I i n1 n2

and Snells law:

Also obtain normal reflected intensity: n
sin 1c 2

Total internal reflection above

n2 n1
tan 1B
n1
Polarizing Brewster angle:

Imaging with lenses & mirrors

Common formulae for mirrors and thin lenses:

h
s'
m
; m
;
h
s

1 1 1

f s s'

Sign conventions:
Rl
Rm
fl
fm
s
s

Positive
Lens Convex towards object
Mirror Concavetowards object
Converginglens, thick center
Concavetowards object
Real image
distanceto lens or mirror

Spherical refraction:

Thin lens in air:

Mirror: f R
2

Negative
Lens Concavetowards object
Mirror convex towards object
Diverginglens, thin center
Convex towards object
Virtual image

n1 n2 n2 n1

s s'
R
1 1
1
n 1

f
R1 R2