PTEG 201

Lecture 4

Search and Prospecting Pool: Geological

and
Geophysical Methods
Drilling and Petroleum: Drilling Rig,
PRE-UPSTREAM
Power
Operating Agreements
System, Drilling Fluid and Circulation
System, Bits, Drill Pipe, Directional
UPSTREAM
Drilling
Exploration and
Well Logging, DST
Casing and Cementation
Production

Exploration
Perforation and Well Activation
Operations
Production Tubing and Well Head
Drilling Operations
Assembly
Completion
Self Flow and Artificial Methods of
Operations
Production of
Production Operations
Oil/Gas
Introductory Well
Separation and Storage
ID-STREAM
Transportation, Field Processing and
Control
Transportation
from producing field
to refinery
Refining
Gas Management
Marketing and Distribution

Teaching Plan

Course Outline

DOWNSTREAM

Refinery Operations and

Marketing
3 Lectures per week

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Search and Prospecting Pool:

Geological and Geophysical Methods
..continued

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

eismic Data Processing

Principles
Acquisition
Land and Marine, 2D 3D

Processing
Improve signal to noise ratio, resolution

Interpretation
e.g. Amplitudes (DHIs), Inversion, 4D
Reservoir model building
Reservoir model maintenance

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic Data Processing

Field Data
What to
Improve

Processing
Technique

Signal to noise ratio

Stacking

Vertical resolution

Deconvolution

Imaging

Migration

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic Data Processing

Once the data is collected, it must be processed through
complex computer programs.
Stacking is a procedure to improve the signal to noise
ratio.
Several seismic records are added together.
Noise is considered random (incoherent), and adding the
records together will cause the noise to cancel out.
Deconvolution removes some of the filtering behavior
of the rock layers and the recording equipment (think of
ringing of a tower bell)
Migration moves the seismic response to the appropriate
position in space rather than just vertically under the
geographical midpoint.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Deconvolution
Digital recording of seismic data in the field and computer
processing of the seismic data has greatly improved the
accuracy and usefulness of seismic exploration.
A correction (statics) is made on the seismic data for
elevation changes and the thickness and velocity of the
near-surface, loose sediments called the weathering layer
or low-velocity zone.
As the seismic energy travel through the subsurface rocks,
the relatively sharp impulse of seismic energy tends to
become spread out, and some portions of the energy is lost.
Deconvolution is a computer process that compresses and
restores the recorded subsurface reflections so that they
are similar to the original seismic energy impulse.
This makes the reflections sharper and reduces some of the
noise.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

rtical Resolution - Deconvolution

Undeconvolved

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Deconvolved

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Migration

section is accurate only flat, horizontal rock layers.

ock layers have a different path for the seismic energy from sou
than horizontal rock layers in the same position.
of this, dipping rock layers do not appear on the seismic record i
osition.
shifted to a down dip position and appear flatter than they are.
t causes anticlines to look larger , and synclines look smaller th
are.
the rock layers in a deep, steeply dipping syncline to cross form

rs sharply terminated against a fault, appear to cross with rock

r side of the fault.
er process called migration moves the dipping rock layers into m
position on the seismic record.

Unmigrated seismic
events:
(a) A bow tie as a result
of a
deep, steep syncline
Prof.
Braide
(b)Sokari
Crossing
events due

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maging - Migration

The reflection recorded at the surface from a dipping

interface does not originate from a point vertically
below the detector, but sideways
Migration aims to reposition the data to its proper place
from where it was reflected.
So the reflection is moved from the point where it was
recorded to the point vertically above the reflection
point.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

ches or Fishtails need Migration

True shape

Non-migrated time
response

Arches are the stacked (zero-offset) expression of

an anticline
Fishtails are the stacked expression of a syncline

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Migration
Time section

Prof. Sokari Braide

Migrated section

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Migration
Migration is the procedure applied in reflection
seismology for the purpose of shifting the reflections
from positions vertically below the midpoint between
the shot point and the receiver to the correct spatial
positions.
This shifting is necessary if the layers are dipping.
The need for migration is clear in the previous slide.
Note the overlapping arching reflections at the bottom
of the left panel.
Layers of rock certainly cannot overlap each other.
This reflection pattern is caused by the dipping beds.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

restack Migration
Many basins such as the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea
have extensive salt
layers. Passage of seismic energy through the salt blurs the
seismic image of any
potential petroleum structures below the salt.
A computer processing technique called prestack migration
helps in giving a
Clearer seismic image of the deeper structures but involves
significantly more
computer time.
Each seismic line is run to intersect another seismic line (tie
in) so that the
reflections can be correlated from one record to another.
If the reflections from two intersecting seismic records do
not correlate, it is called
a mis-tie.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

ell-to-Seismic Tie
A seismic record is more valuable when the individual
sedimentary rock layers have been identified, and potential
reservoir rocks and seals can be traced.
To do this, the seismic line is often run through a well (tied
in) that has been already drilled.
The well logs from that well then provide the basis for
identifying subsurface rock layers on the seismic record.
If no well is available, a stratigraphic test well or strat test
is drilled on the seismic line. The primary purpose of the
well is to collect subsurface samples and run wireline well
logs.
This identifies the ages and composition of reflections on
the seismic profile.
Because seismic data is so expensive, and new fields can be
discovered by reprocessing old data, the seismic data is

Well Correlation
Well-1

Well-2

Kielwindeweer

Annerveen 1

Well-3
Zuidlaarderveen-1
New Old

New Old

New Old

tacking CMP Spread

SPREAD 3
SPREAD 2
SPREAD 1

1 Fold

2 Fold

1 Fold

During the seismic survey, the survey is repeated with

the shot being detonated at different points along the
seismic line. Each of these folds sees the same points
in the reservoir from slightly different angles. When
these traces are added together, or stacked, the
signal to noise ratio improves.

MP Common Mid Point gather

Offset

Midpoint

Offset

-6.0 -4.8 -3.6 -2.4 -1.2 0.0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 km
0

Reflection
time (s)
2

3
A quick analysis shows the linear direct wave (orange
line), the reflected signals from several layers (the
green lines), and the refracted signals (the red lines).

CMP with Statics

Offset

Midpoint

Offset

-6.0 -4.8 -3.6 -2.4 -1.2 0.0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 km
0

Reflection
time (s)
2

3
Topography is superimposed on horizontal reflector; results
in fuzzy response

tack Without
Statics
Stack
after pre-processing: elevation static
1300
0

1350

1400

1450

1500
SP

Time (s)
2

3
Statics is another term for small scale variations in
traveltime.
In this case, the seismic surveys have been corrected for
only elevation related variations in traveltime before being
summed or stacked.
Variations in traveltime due to high frequent variations in

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

tack Without Statics

150

Stack after NAM statics

-150
1300
0

1350

1400

1450

Statics
SP
1500

Time (s)
2

On land the small variations in traveltime are not only

due to changes in the elevations but, more importantly,
also due to variations in the velocity of the layer close to
the surface, called the weathered layer.
After proper correction of these variations in traveltime
(called aligning) the reflectors are much stronger and
the sub-surface structure is much clearer.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

me-to-Depth Conversion
Seismic data is recorded in seconds (time domain), and a
well log is recorded in feet or metres (depth domain).
The vertical scales on both are therefore different and
cannot be directly compared.
If the seismic velocity through each rock layer is known, a
time-to-depth conversion can be made on the seismic data.
TWO WAYS TO DO THIS
1. Checkshot Survey
A geophone is lowered down the well. The seismic source
is then detonated on the surface. The geophone is then
raised up the well a distance of 200, 500, or 1,000 ft
(161, 152, or 305 m), and another measurement is made.
This is repeated until the geophone is at the surface.

2. Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)

This operation is the same as a checkshot survey except
the geophone
interval is shorter
(59oftoEngineering
100 ft orStudies
15 to 30
Prof. Sokari
Braide
College

me-to-Depth Conversion Layer Cake

Time section

.0 1

.4

V = 2000
m/s

twt .8
(s)1.2

Salt

V = 4500
m/s

Reservoir

1.6
Depth section

1
0

Shot point
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Shot point
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Depth
1000
(m)
2000

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

me-to-Depth Conversion Layer Cake

Once the data has been processed, the seismic model

needs to be converted - time measurement on the yaxis to a depth measurement.
The time (two-way-travel time) is converted to depth
by applying the appropriate (or estimated) acoustic
velocities of the overlying layers.
This is the solution to an exercise which asks one to
find the proper place to drill a well based on the data
in the upper panel.
With the depth conversion, the trap in the reservoir
becomes clear.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

me versus Depth migration

Prof. Sokari Braide

Time
Migration

Depth Migration

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me-to-Depth Conversion Layer Cake

Simple approach:
Stack (Time) migration Time-to-Depth conversion only
works for simple geology with simple travel path of
seismic energy
Complex geology results in complex ray paths that
requires proper approach which incorporates the true
travel path.
The proper approach integrates the migration and depth
conversion in one: Depth migration

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Time Migration

time

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

e-stack depth migration Model 2

depth

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic Methods
Principles
Acquisition
Land and Marine, 2D 3D

Processing
Improve signal to noise ratio, resolution

Interpretation
e.g. Amplitudes (DHIs), Inversion, 4D
Reservoir model building
Reservoir model maintenance

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

mplitude versus Offset

Amplitude versus offset (AVO) is an analysis of seismic data
to locate gas reservoirs and help identify the composition of
the rock layers.
Offset is the distance between the seismic source and the
receiver.
The amplitude of a reflection usually decreases with
increasing offset distance.
Gas reservoirs and different sedimentary rocks such as
sandstones, limestones, and shales have different reflection
amplitudes versus offsets.
Some increase, and others decrease with offset.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

D Seismic Exploration
The 3-D seismic survey is divided into
horizontal squares called bins.
All reflections whose midpoints fall
within a particular bin are combined
for common-mid-point (CMP)
stacking.
The CMP fold is the number of midpoints in each bin.
Bins are commonly 55 by 55 ft., 110
by 110 ft.,20 by 20 m., or 30 by 30 m.
After computer processing, a 3-D view
of the subsurface is produced. Rocks
layers are migrated more accurately,
and details are shown better than on
a 2-D seismic image.

Cube display of 3-D

seismic data

D Seismic Exploration
The cube can be made
transparent so that only the
highest amplitude reflectors
are shown.
A time or horizontal slice of
the sub-surface is a flat
seismic picture made at a
specific depth in time
(milliseconds).

3D seismic image with a

time slice.

Various reflectors that

intersect the slice can be
displayed.
A single seismic reflection
can be displayed as a
horizon slice, and a fault
surface can be shown as a
fault slice.

Horizontal slice from a 3-D seismic

survey showing a subsurface,
meandering submarine channel on
a submarine fan, offshore Nigeria.

Seismic sections

Following the extensive acquisition and processing of the

seismic data the final result is a seismic section (2D) or
seismic cube (3D)

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

-D Visualization

Special rooms called visualization centres are used to

display 3-D seismic images in three dimensions.
In some rooms, there are screens on three walls and the
floor. The viewer uses stereoscopic glasses.
The viewer is immersed in the 3-D seismic image and can
walk through the subsurface.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Geologic interpretation
Mid North Sea

Lower North Sea

Chalk

Vlieland

Holland

Delfland
Chalk
Aalburg
Zechstein Salt

Prof. Sokari Braide

Posidonia
Field

Rotliegend
Reservoir

College of Engineering Studies

acies
Facies
from
from
Seismic
seismic

Channel / Crevasse Splay

Example chanel minimum amplitude extraction

What's this? its a crevasse splay
Why is resolution so good? shallow <1000ft

Seismic interpretation techniques amplitude

extraction
Example is 3D inline through wells 6, 9
here red is soft, black hard max, top and base
objective
for extraction is indicated
Prof.
Sokari Braide
College of Engineering Studies

Interpreted facies

Log shape data supports seismic

example interpreted sketch of the min amplitude
extraction with log traces from wells
shaded red log data supports seismic interpretation
channel and crevasse GR motives

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators

Acoustic impedance
Shale High amplitude on-structure

z
Low
amplitude
offstructure

sand
Flat event
Hydrocarbon Water

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

ect Hydrocarbon Indicators

Anticline showing a flat spot on the oil-water

contact.

Sometimes the seismic section will display bright-spots

(high amplitude anomalies) or direct hydrocarbon
indicators (flat events under arching or dipping events).
Bright-spots have been shown to be associated (though
not always) with hydrocarbon accumulations, and the
flat events are consistent with the oil-water or gas-water
contacts in the traps.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

eismic Methods
Principles
Acquisition
Land and Marine, 2D 3D

Processing
Improve signal to noise ratio, resolution

Interpretation
e.g. Amplitudes (DHIs), Inversion, 4D
Reservoir model building
Reservoir model maintenance

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

D Seismic Exploration
4-D or time lapse seismic exploration uses several 3-D
seismic surveys over the same producing reservoir at
various time intervals such as two years to trace the flow
of fluids through the reservoir.
As a reservoir is drained, the temperature, pressure, and
composition of the fluids change.
Gas bubbles out of the oil, and water replaces gas and oil
as it is being produced.
Time slices of the reservoir are compared, and changes in
the seismic response such as amplitude can document the
drainage.
Undrained pockets of oil can be located and wells drilled
to drain them.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

D Seismic Exploration

Amplitu
de
differen
ce at
the top
reservo
ir
horizon
Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic for Reservoir Model

Prof. Sokari Braide

Aim:
identify undrained fault
blocks
Main uncertainty:
sealing capacity of
faults

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Seismic for Producing OWC Map

Prof. Sokari Braide

The Producing OWC can be

mapped all over the field!

College of Engineering Studies

eismic Methods
Principles
Acquisition
Land and Marine, 2D 3D

Processing
Improve signal to noise ratio, resolution

Interpretation
e.g. Amplitudes (DHIs), Inversion, 4D
Reservoir model building
Reservoir model maintenance

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic for Reservoir Maintenance

Reservoir maintenance objectives

Maximise HC production / minimise
produced water
(optimum well placement)
Integrated Reservoir Models
(honour Seismic and Production data)

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Seismic for Reservoir Maintenance

Optimise infill wells to maximise HC /
minimise produced water
Identify / target bypassed oil
Identify connectivity, fault sealing
Identify thief zones, water/gas coning
and cusping
Integrated Reservoir Models honour 4D
Seismic and Production.
Effects of close-the-loop
Increase ultimate hydrocarbon
recovery
Accelerate hydrocarbon recovery
Reduce infill well costs
Reduce separator requirements (delay

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

impact on field development

Prof. Sokari Braide

Well path
after time
lapse

Original
Originally
proposed
well path

Optimise well location in new

model to delay water cut as long as
possible.

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C Seismic Exploration
4-C or multicomponent seismic exploration records both
compressional and shear waves that are given off by a
seismic source.

Seismic waves (a) compressional waves, (b) shear waves

A compressional wave (P-wave) is how sound travels

through the air. Particles through which the compressional
wave is travelling move closer together and then further
apart.

A shear wave (S-wave) is like a wave on the surface of the

ocean. The particles move up and down. Shear waves are
slower than compressional waves and cannot pass
Prof.
Sokari Braide
College of Engineering Studies
through
a liquid or gas.

C Seismic Exploration
The conventional seismic method records only the
compressional waves with a one-component geophone.
The 4-C seismic method records both the compressional
(one component) and also uses three geophones that are
perpendicular to each other to record the shear wave
(three components).
4-C seismic exploration is used to locate and determine
the orientation of subsurface fractures and determine
the composition of the sedimentary rock layers and their
fluids through which the seismic energy passes.
Compressional waves are distorted by gas in sedimentary
rocks, but shear waves are not affected.
Seismic shear wave recording produces a more accurate
picture of any sedimentary rocks that contain gas.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

t toOnce
remember
about
2-Dthe
Seismic
Data
the data has all
been "shot",
information
is fed
into computers for processing. The result is a "line" of
seismic, shown below.
Layers of rock deep in the earth can be clearly seen. On
this "2D" line, stratigraphic traps containing possible oil
or gas have been shaded green. The line is called "2D",
or two-dimensional seismic, because it shows a single
cross-section through the earth along a relatively
straight line.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

t to
remember
about
3-D
Seismic
Data
You might think that 3D seismic would solve all the
problems of exploration. It's not quite that simple.
First of all, 3D seismic is extremely expensive.
Second, 3D seismic is good at showing structural traps
but not so good at
showing stratigraphic traps.
Finally, 3D seismic reduces the uncertainty in the search
for hydrocarbons.
Only by drilling a well can this be established.
Many different types of
colourful and exciting
displays can be created
with 3D seismic
datasets.

Petroleum Geologists
and Geophysicists
study the images
carefully before they
Prof.decide
Sokari Braide
to drill a very

College of Engineering Studies

D Exploration Costs
The high cost of 3-D seismic survey is because of the
expensive data acquisition and computer processing.
A 3-D seismic can have 500 GB of information.
However, more 3-D seismic exploration, both on land and
in the ocean, is being run today than 2-D seismic
exploration.
It saves money by decreasing the percentage of
exploration dry holes.
It also saves money during developmental drilling by
accurately imaging and defining the subsurface reservoir.
The optimum number of developmental wells can then be
drilled into the best locations to drain the reservoir
efficiently.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

xt? Drilling to Produce It

Once We've Found It, What Do We Do With It?

Exploration is only a part of the E and P business. There are many

technologies available to extract petroleum from the ground and then
process it into one of the hundreds of everyday items made from
petroleum-based products.
The only way to know for sure if a trap contains commercial amounts
of gas and oil is to drill a well.
A well drilled to find a new gas or oil field is called a wildcat well.

Prof. Sokari Braide

College of Engineering Studies

Revision Aids
1. a) Briefly describe the principle of acquiring seismic data.
b) Explain the differences in 2-D and 3-D seismic data
2. a) Why is there a need to process seismic data?
b) Explain any three techniques
3. In interpreting seismic data, some key techniques are useful in identifying
hydrocarbons.
a) Briefly describe what AVO is and its usefulness
b) What are DHIs and how useful is this interpretation technique?