Breaking of Chopstick

Failure
Build-up of stress (strain energy)
Difficult to predict time and place
Breaks at weakest point
Hear precursors
Sound of breaking same as seismic wave

Sources of Tsunami
Sudden submarine topographic change
Crustal deformation by earthquake.
Submarine volcanic eruption.
Landslide near coastline or
submarine landslide.

Tsunami by Volcanic Eruption

Eruption of Krakatau in Aug.
1883.

Krakatau

More than 36,000 people were killed.

Ref. http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Krakatau.html

Tsunami by Landslide

Landslide

Tsunami
The landslide was triggered by
an earthquake on May 21, 1792.
More than 15,000 people were
killed mainly by tsunami.

Tsunami by Earthquake

6. Introduction of Simulation Technique

Occurrence
of
Earthquake
Detection
of
Seismic
Wave

(since 1999)

Short-period
seismograph

Strong motion
seismograph

Empirical method
a) Distance to epicenter
b) Magnitude of earthquake

Quantitative method
Simulation of tsunami

Dedicated telephone network

Determination

of
Source
Parameters

Evaluation
of
Tsunami

Automatic Processing System

Mp

18

Quantitative Tsunami Forecast

Issuance
of
Tsunami
Warning

66

average issuance time

3 to 5 min

<Tsunami Forecast Regions>

18

66
<Contents of Tsunami Forecast>
1. Generation of Tsunami
1. Generation of Tsunami
2. Tsunami Grade
2. Tsunami Grade
3. Expected arrival time
3. Expected arrival time
4. Expected tsunami height

Theoretical Seismology 1: Sources

What is the Earthquake Source?
Elastic Rebound
Fault Slip Double-couple Force
Seismic Moment Tensor
Models of Earthquake Faults
Earthquake Size
Magnitudes
Seismic Moment
Energy

What is the cause of

Earthquakes ?
Associated with faults
(source or cause?)
Associated with magma?

(Most) Earthquakes are

fault movements

Types of faults
Normal
fault
Thrust (Reverse) fault

Strike-slip fault

Strike-Slip Faults

Left-lateral

Right-lateral

1940 Imperial Valley, California (Ms 7.1)

San Francisco Earthquake

April 18, 1906
Mw 7.7-7.9
470 km rupture of
San Andreas fault

Seismogram
S phase

Reading arrival time

of P phase & S phase

Determination
of Hypocenter

P phase

15.3mm

19:23:04.7
8
19:23:07.5
3

Maximum amplitude

Hypocenter (Distance)
Reading Maximum
Amplitude

Japan Meteorological Agency

2005/3/9

Determination
of magnitude

P-wave first motions

This type more likely to produce large tsunamis

Harvard/NEIC Moment Tensor Solutions

Haskell Line Source

Dislocation Source

Haskell, 1964
Sumatra earthquake

sumatra
Ishii et al., 2005

Complicated Slip Distributions

-

1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan Earthquake

Single-force earthquakes
volcanic eruptions and landslides

Mount St. Helens, USA

Kanamori et al. 1984

Earthquake Size Magnitude

Charles Richter
1900-1985
log of amplitude
Distance correction

M = log A log A0

Richter, 1958

Magnitude Determination
Magnitude, Size of Earthquake
(Defined by Richter (1935) at first)
M=log10(Amplitude)+(Correction for Distance)
Amplitude0.1 M
Amplitude10 M
Amplitude100 M

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range
ML

Local magnitude (California)

regional S and
surface waves

0.1-1

Mj

JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)

regional S and
surface waves

5-10 s

mb

Body wave magnitude

Ms

Surface wave magnitude

Mw

Moment magnitude

teleseismic P waves

Mwp P-wave moment magnitude

teleseismic surface
waves
teleseismic surface
> 20
waves
teleseismic P waves 10-6

Mm

teleseismic surface

Mantle magnitude

> 20

Magnitudes for the Sumatra Earthquake

mb

7.0

1 sec P wave

mblg

6.7

1 sec Lg waves

Mwp

8.0 8.5

60 sec P waves

Ms

8.5 - 8.8

20 sec surface waves

Mw

8.9 - 9.0

300 sec surface waves

Mw

9.1 - 9.3

3000 sec free oscillations

131 stations

6 stations

118 statio

Relationship between different types of magnitudes

Earthquake size - Seismic Moment

Area (A)

Slip (S)
Seismic Moment = Rigidity)(Area)(Slip)

M 0 (t ) S u (t )

Mwp

P-wave moment magnitude

Mo = Max |uz(t)dt| 43r/Fp

Mw = (log10Mo 9.1)/1.5

Quick magnitude from P wave

Uses relatively long-period body waves (10-60 s
Some problems for M>8.0

Mwp

P-wave moment magnitude

uz(t)dt

Mo

Seismic moments and fault areas

of some famous earthquakes
2004 Sumatra
400 x 1027 dyne-cm
Mw 9.3

Earthquake Magnitude and

Magnitud Displacement(
Tsunami
e
m)

Ground

ce
pla
s
i
D

Length

ent

Length
(km)

0.03

0.4

0.08

1.4

0.25

0.8

14

2.5

40

140

25

450

M:+1Displacement3,

Length3

Richter Scale = Magnitude

Magnitude and Tsunami

Water volume lifted by the fault motion
(Area)(Displacement)

Magnitude +1
Fault Length Fault Width Displa
30 times
Magnitude +2
10 Fault Length 10 Fault Width 10 Displa
1000 times

Rupture Propagation

Rupture Velocity < S-wave Speed

Duration of Rupture
= Fault LengthRupture Velocity
Magnitude 7
Duration = (50km)(3km/s)
=10and several (sec)
Magnitude 8
Duration = (100 150 ) 3km/s
=30 (sec) 1(min)
Earthquake on Dec. 26 2004
Rupture Velocity 2km/s
Duration > 10 min

Magnitudes for Tsunami Warnings

Want to know the moment (fault area and size)

but takes a long time (hours) to collect surface wave
or free oscillation data
Magnitude from P waves (mb) is fast but
underestimates moment
If have time (hours),
determine Mm from mantle waves

For quick magnitude (seconds to minutes),

determine Mwp from P waves

Things to Remember

1. Earthquake sources are a double couple force syste

which is equivalent to Fault Slip
2. The moment tensor describes the Force System
for earthquakes and can be used to determine
the geometry of the faulting

3. Earthquake ruptures begin from a point (hypocente

and spread out over the fault plane
4. The size of an earthquakes can be described by
magnitudes, moment, and energy.
Mm and Mwp are types of magnitudes used for
tsunami warning systems

Tsunami Magnitude
Distant tsunami (> 1000 km)
Mt=log10H+C+9.1
C, Correction constant.
Local tsunami
Mt=log10H+log10+5.80
H, Tsunami height (m).
, Epicentral distance (km),
100 km 3,500 km.
(Abe, 1979, 1981)
(Used to express size of tsunami effect.)

Thank you for your

attention

Chang Heng Seismometer AD132

Giuseppe Mercalli
(1850-1914)

John Milne
(1850-1913)

Sassa Seismometer (~1935), Abuyama, Kyoto Univ.

What is an Earthquake ?

The Source
Fault mechanisms
The Shaking
Wave propagation
Structures

Elastic Rebound Theory

Reid (1910)

8.5 feet offset in San Andreas fault

from 1906 earthquake. Mirin County

(Data in 1851-65, 1874-92, 1906)

Single Couple versus Double Couple

Single
Couple

Double Couple

P polarity pattern same

S polarity pattern different

Controversy settled
by Maruyama (1963)

Showed that Double

Single Couple resembles fault Couple
slip
was equivalent
to fault slip

Equivalent Body Forces

Single Force
Dipole
Couple
(Single Couple)

Double Couple

Moment tensor: dipoles and couples

M pq (t ) q f p ( , t )dV ( )
V

9 components
Symmetric matrix so 6 independent

(LW p.343; AR p.50)

Moment Tensor for an Explosion

M 11 M 22 M 33
M 12 M 21 M 13 M 31 M 23 M 32 0

Moment Tensor for Fault Slip

North

Double Couple
Fault - Slip

M 12 M 21
M 11 M 22 M 33 M 23 M 23 M 13 M 31 0

Circular Crack Sato and Hirasawa, 1973

Mm

Mantle Magnitude
Source Correction

Mm = log10(X()) + Cd + Cs 3.9
Distance
Correction
Spectral Amplitude

amplitude measured in frequency domain

surface waves with periods > 200 sec

Fault Areas of
Damaging Earthquakes

1995
Kobe
Mw 6.9

1944
1946
1995

Deaths
1944 Tonankai
Mw 8.1

1223
1330
6310
1946 Nankai
Mw 8.1

15 km

M4
M5
M6

1
0
5

0
M4

M5

Seismicity in NEIC catalog 1990 - 2005

M6

Fault areas of some

famous earthquakes
2004 Sumatra
400 x 1027 dyne-cm
Mw 9.3

Seismic Radiated Energy

Radiated Energy = 1.5Mw + 11.8

Kanamori, 1977

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range
ML

Local magnitude (California)

regional S and
surface waves

0.1-1

Mj

JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)

regional S and
surface waves

5-10 s

mb

Body wave magnitude

Ms

Surface wave magnitude

Mw

Moment magnitude

teleseismic P waves

Mwp P-wave moment magnitude

teleseismic surface
waves
teleseismic surface
> 20
waves
teleseismic P waves 10-

Mm

teleseismic surface

Mantle magnitude

> 20

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range
ML

Local magnitude (California)

regional S and
surface waves

0.1-1

Mj

JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)

regional S and
surface waves

5-10 s

mb

Body wave magnitude

Ms

Surface wave magnitude

Mw

Moment magnitude

teleseismic P waves

Mwp P-wave moment magnitude

teleseismic surface
waves
teleseismic surface
> 20
waves
teleseismic P waves 10-

Mm

teleseismic surface

Mantle magnitude

> 20