Metals are Crystalline

Fundamentally atoms arranged in periodic order

A crystal is an orderly array of atoms in space.
Unit cells: Smallest group of atoms possessing the
symmetry of crystal
Most metals crystallize: bcc, fcc & hcp

Lattice Defects

Real crystals deviate from perfect periodicity

and known as lattice defects.
Defects affect Physical & Mechanical Properties
Structure sensitive and insensitive properties
Structure sensitive - Mechanical Properties
Structure insensitive - Physical Properties

Slip planes/ directions in bcc

Contd lattice defects

Lattice defects or imperfection is deviation from an orderly

array of lattice
1. Point Defects: Deviations localized to the vicinity of only a few atoms
Vacancies, Interstitials & Impurities
Fraction of vacancies at a temp., n/N = exp(-Es/kT)
2. Line Defects : Deviations run as lines or 2D nets
Dislocations
3. Surface Defects: Clustering of line defects
Stacking fault, Grain boundary, Low angle grain
boundary, Twinned region etc.

Line defect- Dislocation

Dislocations- Most important 2-D or line defects. They
extend in a crystal as a line or 2-D net of lines.
Responsible for slip- Most important mechanism of
plastic deformation.
Dislocation is a line separating slipped and unslipped
region of a crystal.

Deformation by Slip

The usual method of plastic deformation is slip.

This is sliding of one block of crystal over other block.
Slip is responsible for plastic deformation and deferent mechanisms of
mechanical behaviour.

This takes place along a definite crystallographic plane (slip

plane).
Crude approximation, it is like distortion produced in a deck
of cards when pushed from one end.
Slip in a crystal can be understood with the help of the
Fig.1
6

Fig. 1.a Classical Idea of Slip & Slip Lines

Fig. 1.b Fine Structure of Slip Band

Slip steps in single crystal of cadmium

Slip lines in Ni-based superalloyon

micropillarsingle crystals (Nix et al)

Effect of Shear Stress

Slip takes place along certain crystallographic planes and
directions (there are only limited no. of planes and directions).
Stress must exceed a critical level.
Slip displacement is an integral multiple of atomic distance
(each atom moves an integral multiple of atomic spacing).
Due to symmetry of a crystal lattice, the crystal structure is
perfectly restored, if deformation is uniform. Each atom in the
slipped part move by the same integral multiple of lattice
spacing.
Slip lines appears as changes in elevation. Under Electron
Microscope the change in elevation of slip appears as a band.
The band is actually composed of number of individual slip
9
steps.

Slip Plane & Direction

Slip
Slip occurs
occurs most
most readily
readily in
in specific
specific direction
direction on
on aa
certain
certainspecific
specificcrystallographic
crystallographicplanes.
planes.
Generally,
Generally, slip
slip planes
planes are
are plane
plane ofof greatest
greatest atomic
atomic
density.
Slip
directions
are
closestpacked
directions
density. Slip directions are closestpacked directions
within
withinthe
theslip
slipplanes.
planes.
Since
Since the
the planes
planes ofof highest
highest atomic
atomic density
density are
are most
most
widely
widelyspaced
spacedplanes
planesininthe
thecrystal
crystalsystems,
systems,the
theresistance
resistance
totoslip
slipisisleast
leastalong
alongthe
theset
setofofplanes.
planes.
Slip
Slipdirections
directionsare
areclosed
closedpacked
packeddirection,
direction,therefore
thereforethe
the
movement
movementofofatoms
atomsininthe
thedirection
directionisisleast.
least.
The
The slip
slip plane
plane together
together with
with the
the slip
slip direction
direction isis
considered
consideredas
asslip
slipsystems.
systems.
The
The most
most common
common crystation
crystation lattice
lattice inin metallic
metallic materials
materials
are
are bcc,
bcc, hcp
hcp and
and fcc.
fcc. The
The figures
figures show
show the
the hard
hard ball
ball
model
model and
and stacking
stacking sequences
sequences inin the
the above
above crystal
crystal
10
systems
systems

Fig. 2

11

hcp Crystals
In hcp crystals basal plane, (0001) has maximum atomic
density: slip plane (closed packed plane).
The axes [11 -2] are the closed packed directions and
hence the slip directions
No. of Basal Plane 1
No. of Slip direction 3
In each basal plane
No. of my slip system
=
1x3=3
This is the reason hcp crystals are highly orientation
dependent.
Mg, Zn, Co, Ti.
In case of hexagonal closed packed system, Miller Bravais
indical notation is used to describe the direction and planes.
Four coordinates are used, Fourth Indical notation by (a1 a2
a3 c) [a1 a2 a3 c].
Unit vector direction is a/3 [2 0]
12

Fig. 3

13

(110) Plane & [1 -1 -1] Direction in bcc &

(111) and [1 -1 0] in fcc Systems

14

(001) Plane & [100] Direction in Simple Cubic Systems

15

16

17

Fig. 3

18

fcc Crystals
(111) planes are closed packed planes / planes of highest
atomic density.
<110> are closed packed direction.
There are eight {111} planes but opposite plane are
parallel. Therefore, there are only four set of octahedral
planes. Each plane contains three closed packed
directions.
No. of slip systems = 3 x 4 = 12
Ag, Cu, Ni, Pt, -Fe
19

Slip planes/ directions in fcc

20

Slip planes/ directions in bcc

21

bcc Crystals
bcc is not a closed packed structure.
Not even a single closed packed plane.
{110} planes have higher atomic density.
<111> direction are as closed as <110> in fcc and {11-20} in
hcp.
The slip planes are not definite
Common slip planes {110}, {112} & {123}
Directions always {111}.
There are 48 slip systems. But planes are not really closed
packed, therefore, the shear stress required is higher.
Slip moves (cross slip) from one plane to other resulting
into irregular wavy slip bands.
The examples of bcc metals Fe, Mo, Cr, Nb.
22

Displacement vectors in cubic system

23

Slip in a Perfect Lattice

Calculation of Theoretical Shear Strength
Slip is translation of one atomic plane over other. This
movement of atomic plane requires a critical level of shear
stress.
Fig.

24

Continued .. Slip in perfect crystal

25

26

Continued Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

27

Continued Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

The shear stress is a periodic function of the displacement.

A sinusoidal relationship can be assumed
here m is amplitude of sine wave. a is
interatomic spacing, b is period & x is
small displacement
Now

x
Gr G
a

For small displacement,

G b
2 a

28

Continued Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

Shear Modulus = 20 150 GP in metals.

Theoretical shear stress = 3 to 30 GPa.
However, shear stress to cause shear in metal single
crystals are 0.5 to 10 MPa
Even more refined calculation shows:
for fcc metals
=
=

for NaCl crystals

G
4

for Covalent bonded diamond structure

Since the theoretical shear stress of metal is 100 times

greater than the actual. It indicates the mechanism either
than bodily satisfying of atoms is responsible for slip.

29

Theoretical shear strength, explanation

The concept of dislocation was first introduced to
explain discrepancy between the observed and
theoretical shear strength of metals
If this concept is true it is necessary to show:
1) they are visible, 2) the motion of a dislocation
requires a shear stress much smaller than the
theoretical shear strength. 3) the movement of
dislocation produces a steps at the free surface.
All three are found to be true in real crystals.
This indicates the validity of the concept of
dislocation.
30

 It is possible to see these dislocations with aid of

Transmission Electron Microscope.
For this purpose very thin slice of metal is taken (few
thousand thick) from a deformed crystal.
Etch Pit Technique revels the location of intersection of
dislocation line with the surface.

31

Figs. Disl. Network & Etch pits

32

Fig. Observation of Disl. in thin foil

33

Edge Dislocation

Fig A represents a simple cubic lattice under an external

shear stress. The amount of slip or displacement is
assumed to be one atomic spacing. The result of this
shear is shown in the Fig. B.
This leaves an extra half plane CD below the slip plane in
the right hand side, outside the crystal.
It will also produce an extra half plane located above the
slip plane and in the centre of the crystal.
All other planes are realigned and continuity is maintained.
Distortion decrease as moved away from the edge of the
extra plane.
The boundary of additional plane is called an edge
dislocation.
34

Fig. Continued Edge Dislocation

35

Edge Dislocation
Fig. 4.11 represents a 3 D sketch of the edge
dislocation.
The figure clearly shows that dislocation has the
dimension of a line.
Dislocation line marks the (separates) boundary between
sheared and un-sheared part of the slip plane.
This is the basic characteristics of a dislocation line.
Dislocation may be defined as a line that forms a
boundary on a slip plane between slipped and un-slipped
region.
Displacement vector: Burgers Vector, b.

36

Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

37

38

39

Screw Dislocation
Schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.13 A.
Here each small cube is considered to represent an atom.
Fig. B represents the same crystal with the position of the
dislocation line marked by DC.
ABCD represents slip plane under the effect of stress.
Upper front part has been sheared by one atomic distance
to the left relative to the lower front portion.
It is termed as screw dislocation because the lattice planes
spiral the dislocation line DC. This can be proved by
starting at point x in Fig. A then proceeding toward and
around the crystal in the indicated direction. One circuit will
end the crystal at point y. If it is continued it will finally end
at y. This deformation is known as screw dislocation.
Dislocation line // Displacement vector and
moves perpendicular to Displacement vector
40

Fig. ContdScrew Dislocation

41

42

Model for screw dislocation

43

Fig. Cont.dScrew Dislocation

44

Edge vs Screw Dislocations

The Fig. A, shown earlier has an incomplete plane which

lies above the slip plane. These dislocations are represented by and . Here the represents slip plane and
I vertical line extra-half plane.
It is also possible to introduce an incomplete plane below
the slip plane these dislocations are differentiated by
calling the first one as positive() and second a negative
()edge dislocation.
It may be noted that the difference between these
dislocations is arbitrary. A single rotation of a positive
edge dislocation by 180 turns it into negative edge
dislocation.
45

Cont Edge vs Screw dislocations

The illustrated Screw dislocation is Left Hand Dislocation.

Because the lattice planes spiral the dislocation line like a
left hand screw.
In other case, lattice planes spiral the dislocation like a
right hand screw (anti-clock wise movement of lattice
planes results the advancement towards its operator/
right). All there dislocations are shown in the Figs. 4.14.

46

Fig. Continued Edge, Screw Disl.

47

Cont Edge vs Screw dislocations

In (+) edge dislocation, line move to the left, when stress

is applied on the upper half.
In (-) edge dislocation, line moves in the right direction
when stress is applied on lower half.
Similarly anti-clock wise movement makes the
advancement towards left in left handed screw.
Anti-clock wise movement makes the advancement in
the right direction in case of right hand screw dislocation.
What is common?
Continue shearing of the crystal in all cases result
into formation of steps on both the surfaces.
48

Cont Edge vs Screw dislocations

In the above cases dislocations are terminated on the

surface of the crystals. However, they can also form a
continues loop within it.
In a loop
two basic types of dislocations. Screw and
edge dislocations.
An
crystal.

irregular area can also get sheared inside the

In all the cases displacement is equal to a vector (length

equal to an atomic spacing or its multiple). This is a
discontinuity at which lattice shifts from un-sheared to
shear state.

49

Dislocation loop

50

Mixed Dislocation
If b.v. is ar to line, an Edge Dislocation.
If bv is to line, a Screw Dislocation.
At any other angels, dislocation is mixed in nature, a
Mixed Dislocation.
The Fig. 4.13 (a) shows an effect, atoms in area
A C B have shifted to one atomic distance relative to
the atoms below. The boundary of shift is not linear
rather curved. The top view of crystal is shown in Fig.
4.13 (b).

51

Mixed Dislocation

52

Cont Mixed dislocation

Shift vector is same at all the points.

A mixed distance can be resolved into an edge and a
screw dislocation. These resolved dislocation is called
edge and screw components of the line.
The generation of mixed dislocation is very difficult to
visualize. Fig. 4.14 shows the top view of the curved
distance presented in Fig. 4.13. The open circle (O)
represents the atoms just above the slip (glide) plane
and close circles () just below. Atoms are in their
equilibrium positions in region x and y. Atomic
disturbance is noticed along dislocation line.
53

54

ContdMixed Dislocation
.

C Pure E Disl, A- Pure S Disl. Between A & C Mixed Disl

55

Imperfect /Partial Dislocation

When atoms move from one equilibrium position to next
lattice site- perfect dislocation. (Fig.b)
When a perfect dislocation moves along its slip plane,
leaves behind the atoms in position equivalent to those
they occupied originally.
In Fig.(c) shows an imperfect dislocation resulting a
relative displacement a/2. It can be seen that as the
imperfect dislocation moves to the left the atoms are
shifted into sites that are not equivalent to their original
position.
56

Cont. Partial Disl.

57

Critical Resolved Shear Stress

The extent of slip in crystal depends on the magnitude of
the shearing stress produced by external loads, geometry of the crystal, structure and the orientation slip plane
/direction with respect to the shearing stress.
Slip begins when the shearing stress (resolved) on the
slip plane in the slip direction reached a critical threshold
value, called critical resolved shear stress.
This depends on composition and temperature
(introduced by Schmid).

58

Contd CRSS

The area of the slip

= A0/cos

The component shear stress in the slip

direction = Pcos

Ao

Resolved shear
stress on the slip
plane in the slip
direction

= S cos cos
=

occurs when RSS,

c (Slip
critical for the material
and that condition is
achived
59

ContdCRSS

Shear resolved stress has maximum value when = =

45
Resolved shear stress has zero value if the tensile axis is
normal to the slip plane ( =90)or
if it is parallel to slip plane =90).
Slip will not occur in these conditions.
Crystal close to these orientation fracture rather than
slip.

60

Contd...CRSS

ContCRSS

CRSS is a material constant.

It is a function of chemistry ( Importance of alloy)
It varies with the temperature (Working at elevated temp)
bcc materials are very sensitive to temperature
(D/B transition temp.)
hcp crystals are very sensitive to orientation changes
61

Dislocation Reaction
Dislocation represents a boundary between slipped and
un-slipped region of a crystal. Topographically consideration requires that a dislocation can not terminate within
the crystal.
b1
b3
b2

However at node 3 or 4 dislocations meet. At a node two

dislocation b1 and b2 may combine to form b3.
a0 [110] + a0 [211] ao [321]
(During addition / subtraction common unit vector must be used)

a0 /3 [112] + a0 /6[11-1] = ao/6 [224] + a0/6 [11-1]

ao/6 [333] = a0/2 [111]
62

ContdDisl. reaction

A dislocation having b.v. equal to one lattice spacing is

called distance of unit strength.
Dislocation of higher strength (2ao, 3ao = b.v.) They
generally dissociates into the 2 or more dislocations.
Dislocation of unit strength can also dissociate.
This is only possible when there is a decrease in strain
energy (proportional to the square of its b.v.)
If b = a0 [u v w]
S.E. a02 [u2 + v2 + w2],
Strength |b| a0 [u2 + v2 + w2]

63

Contd Dislocation reaction

We know that the smallest b.v. in fcc crystal is

[a0 /2, a0 /2, 0] generally written as a0 /2[110] (say b)
Let us assume dissociation of this dislocation into c and
d dislocations
b = c + d,
a0/2 [-110] = a0/6 [-12 -1] + a0/6 [-211]
In this case vector sum of each component on the RHS is equal to
LHS. (a balanced equation)

However, this is possible in case there is reduction in

strain energy
b2 > c 2 + d2 feasible( reaction feasible )
64

Dislocation in fcc Lattice

The primary slip planes in fcc lattice are (octahedral
planes) [111]. The stacking sequence in this system is
ABC ABC.type .See Fig.

How can we introduce an edge dislocation?

An edge dislocation can be introduced by removing a
plane of atoms (atoms upto B- stack removed, a zig
zag row of atoms is missing , A -stack, grey circles
visible)

65

Contd Dislocation in fcc

The figure indicates a (-) edge dislocation viewed from

top. b.v., a0/2 [-110]

B
A
C
[-110]
(111)

66

Cont Dislocation in fcc

A dislocation indicated in Fig. 5.12 can not move in a simple

manner.
Because in this case each white atoms have to climb
over A atoms to move to next B positions.
This involves large straining of the lattice. Therefore, energetically not favorable.

This displacement can also be achieved by a two step

process (this has been shown in Fig. 5.13).
Atoms (B) move by vector c and then by d.
This brings the atoms to same final position (B2).
In other words a perfect dislocation of displacement vector b is now taking
place in two steps c and d. This is dissociation of b into c and d
resulting into introduction of two partial dislocations.

This involves less straining of crystal and therefore more

energetically favorable.
67

Contd Dislocation in fcc

The Fig. shown below can also explain it clearly be used to understand
this reaction.
b, a/2[-110]
(111)

d, a/6[-211]

c,a/6[-12-1]

a/2[-110]

a/6[-12-1] + a/6[-211]

68

Contd Dislocation in fcc

a0/2[-110] (perfect disl.)

a0/6[-12-1]( partial disl.) + a0/6[-211](par. disl)

69

 ABC AC ABC
C

ABC

Stacking fault (hcp Stacking sequence in fcc

crystal)
D

AC

ABC

Width of stacking fault is

decided by Staking fault force
(attraction), and force of
repulsion between partial
dislocations

Fig 5.13a ( Heidenreich- Shockley partial)

70

Formation of partial dislocation can be understood with

the help of this Fig. (5.13 5.13a Reed Hill).
Originally there is a perfect dislocation (Fig.5.12) on the
either sides of the dislocation line.
Stacking sequence is ABCABC (ABC ABC dislocation
line).
During its course of movement atoms stacked at B
position moves to C position. At this state the stacking
sequence is ABC (AC) ABC.
It

is a fault in the stacking sequence, known as stacking

fault.
71

 The angle between two partial 60. Force is repulsively

between these two partials (because they are of
opposite sign and angle > 45).
The faulted region possesses a surface energy attractive
in nature (much smaller then an ordinary g.b.).
Therefore this faulted region is under two opposite
forces.
width of the fault settles at equilibrium depending
on stacking fault energy or surface energy. Lower
the stacking fault energy wider the fault and few
more atoms are added in the faulted region.

72

Contd Dislocation in fcc

73

This energy is very sensitive to chemical composition.

Stacking faults influence the plastics deformation. Metal with wide
stacking fault (low SFE) strain harden more easily, twin easily on
annealing. Metal with high SFE have a dislocation substructure of cells
formation. While low SFE metals show substructure (liner array of
74
dislocation).

75

Frank Partial Dislocation in fcc

a0
[111]
3

A sessile dislocation Burgers Vector

.Its Burgers vector
is perpendicular to the central stacking fault.

Condensation of a disk of vacancies

76

Introduction of a disk of interstitials

77

Frank pointed out that another type of partial dislocation

can exist in the fcc lattice. Fig. illustrates a set of (111)
planes viewed from the edge. The centre part of the middle
A plane is missing. An edge dislocation if formed in this
region with a Burgers vector a [111] .This is called a Frank
3
partial dislocation. Its Burgers vector is perpendicular to
the central stacking fault. Since glide must be restricted to
the plane of the stacking fault and the Burgers vector is
normal to this plane, the Frank partial dislocation cannot
move by glide. For this reason it is called a sessile
dislocation. A sessile dislocation can move only by the
diffusion of atoms or vacancies to or from the fault i.e. by
the process of climb.
0

78

Because climb is not a likely process at ordinary

temperatures, sessile dislocations provide obstacles to the
movement of other dislocation. Dislocations which glide
freely over the slip plane, such as perfect dislocations or
Shockley partials, are called glissile. A method by which a
missing row of atoms can be created in the (111) plane is
by the condensation of a disk of vacancies on that plane.
Evidence for the collapse of disks of vacancies in aluminum
has been obtained by transmission electron microscopy.

79

Lomer Cottrell Barrier

Dislocation can glide and cross-slip (if screw in nature).
Partial dislocations are created by some dislocation
reactions or other mechanisms.
Shockley Partial- Glissile
Frank Partial
- Sessile
Sessile dislocation can also be produced by glide of
dislocations on intersecting plane during duplex slip.

80

Contd Lomer-Cottrell barrier

81

82

Consider two perfect dislocations and laying on (111) and (1 1 1) planes respectively. The dislocations are parallel to
the line of intersection of the planes [0-11]. The dislocations
interact and react to form another perfect dislocation
(suggested by Lomer) on (100) plane. Not a true sessile
dislocation.

a0
[101]
2

a0
[110]
2

a0
[011]
2

83

Refer to Fig4.41a dislocation AB on (111) and BD on

(-1-11)give AD. AB & BD are parallel lines and intersect
along BC line
a/2[10-1]+ a/2[011]a/2[110] on (001) plane
a/2[110] a pure dislocation because its bv is perpendicular
to BC.
Hence, the Lomer reaction provides a means of locking
the motion of the mobile unit dislocations of fcc crystal at
the intersections of the slip planes.

84

Cottrell showed that the partial dislocations produced by

lower reaction can form a completely immobile dislocation.
If the two dislocations AB and BD are extended, as shown
in Fig 4.41b,The two leading partial dislocations on each
slip plane can react and can form another partial
dislocation as follows:
a0/2[101] a0/6[211]+a0/6[1-12] *
a0/2[-110] a0/6[-211]+a0/6[-12-1] *
a0/6[1-12] +a0/6[-12-1] a0/6[011] on (100) plane (Dieter)
a0/6[2-1-1] +a0/6[-121] a0/6[110] on (001) plane (John)
The
resultant
dislocation).

dislocation

line

[0-11]/[-110](Edge

85

AB+BDA++D
a/2[10-1+a/2[011]a/6[11-2]+a/6[110]+a/6[112]
The three partials are called Lomer-Cottrell dislocations.
The dislocation line lies along the intersect BC, and the
lines of two Shockley partials, A & D, are separated from
it two stacking faults. The dislocation line appears to
hold the faults together as a stair-rod holds a rug on the
staircase. The dislocation line called stair-rod
dislocation. a/6[110] is an edge dislocation on (001)/ (100).

86

Three partials on different glide planes.

They are known as supersessile dislocation because they
can not move without dissociation. They are referred as
Lomer-Cottrell lock / barrier. They block the motion on
either of the {111} planes. Lomer-Cottrell dislocations in fcc
as an effective mechanism to block dislocation and cause
strain hardening.
The resultant partial dislocation is placed

87

Dislocation in bcc Lattice

Slip occurs in the <111> direction in bcc lattice.
a
The shortest lattice vector is 2 [111] .
Slip plane are {110}, {112} and {123} in iron. In other bcc
metals {110} are predetermine slip planes.
0

The {110} planes normal slip planes (110), (101), (011)

a
[111]
2
interesting direction [111].
Thus screw dislocation with Burgers vector can easily
move from one {110} type plane to other. Under the effect
of high stress this can also move to {111} type plane,
resulting wavy and poorly defined slip plane.
0

88

Extended dislocations are normally not observed in bcc.

However, immobile dislocations do form in bcc lattice.
a0
[111]
2

a0
[111]
2

a0 [001]

(101)
(10-1)
(001)
The product dislocation is a pure edge in nature with
Burgers vector normal to the plane. This is completely
immobile, more over (001) plane is a clearage plane in bcc,
therefore this nucleate a brittle crack. This reaction also
produces a network of dislocation a 0 [001] type of
dislocation.
89

90

Dislocation in bcc Lattice

Slip occurs in the <111> direction in bcc lattice. The
shortest lattice vector is . Slip plane are {110}, {112} and
{123} in iron. In other bcc metals {110} are predetermine
slip planes.
The {110} planes normal slip planes (110), (101), (01)
interesting
direction [11]. Thus screw dislocation with
a
[111]
Burgers vector can easily move from one {110} type
2
plane to other. Under the effect of high stress this can also
move to {111} type plane, resulting wavy and poorly defined
slip plane.
0

91

Extended dislocations are normally not observed in bcc.

However, cottsell has suggested a dislocation reaction,
which leads to the formation of immobile dislocations in bee
a
lattice. Consider A dislocation with Burgers vector 2 [111] on
a
]
plane (101) and B, 2 [111on
(001)
0

a0
a0
[111] + 2 [111]
2

a0 [001]

The dislocation lies on (001) plane. The dislocation is a

pure edge in nature with Burgers vector normal to the
plane. This is completely immobile, more over (001) plane
is a clearage plane in bcc, therefore this initiate nucleate a
brittle crack. This reaction also produces a network of
dislocation a0 [001] type of dislocation.
92

Cross Slip and Climb of Dislocation

The slip plane contains both the dislocation line and its
Burgers vector (b).
In screw dislocation, b is parallel to the dislocation line.
Therefore, any plane containing the dislocation line is
possible slip plane.
A screw dislocation can move to any slip plane or glide (an
intersecting plane) in any direction perpendicular to itself.
This is called cross slip.
On the other hand, b is normal to the dislocation line in
edge dislocation.
Thus there is only one plain which can contain both line
and vector.
The edge dislocation remains captive in its plane.

93

Cross Slip and Climb of Dislocation

However, there is another method, fundamentally different
from slip, by which an edge dislocation can change its
plane. This process is known as climb and involves motion
in a direction normal to the slip plane.

Dislocation climb occurs by the diffusion of vacancies or

interstitial. Since climb is diffusion controlled process, it is
thermally activated and occurs more readily at elevated
temperature.

94

Cross Slip and Climb of Dislocation

95

96

In the diagram, a vacant site has moved to position a of

the crystal. The edge dislocations lose one atom. Atom c
(crossed circle) represents the next atom of the edge (lying just below the plane of the paper).

If atom c and all other atoms forming edge of dislocation

move off through interaction with vacancies, the edge
dislocation will climb one atom distance in a direction
normal to the slip plane.
The climb illustrated in this Fig. shows movement of
dislocation one atomic spacing above the slip plane,
designated positive climb.
This results in shrinking of the size of extra plane.
97

98

A mechanism for negative climb is illustrated in

Fig. 4.36A and B. In this case atom a moves to the
left and occupying a position just the below of the
extra plane. This result a vacancy formation. This
vacancy then moves off into the crystal. The atom
just behind the plane of paper is representing by
point C. This shift of the slip plane is called
negation climb.
Notice that this is again an atom by atom
procedure. There is not a cooperative movement
of the entire row of atoms (in case of slip a
cooperative movement of the entire atoms takes
place).
99

In case of positive climb, the extra plane grows smaller and

slip plane moves in upward direction.
This results shrinking of the crystal parallel to the slip plane and perpendicular
to the extra plane.

Positive climb is associated with the compressive strain

and is promoted by a compressive stress component
perpendicular to the extra plane.
In the same way, a tensile stress component perpendicular
to the extra plane may cause growth of the extra plane and
as a result negative climb of the dislocation.
It may be noted that slip in crystal is a result of shear
stress, where as climb is associated with the normal
stresses (tensile or compressive).
100

If the concentration of vacancy is very low and their rate of

jump, from one equilibrium site to another equilibrium site,
is low.
Climb is not a likely process at low/ room temperature.
However, at high temperature the number of vacancies
increase by many power of ten, as well as rate of jump
(diffusivity) is very high.
Therefore, climb is promoted at high temperature. It may
also be noted slip on the other hand is only slightly
influenced by temperature.

101

Diffusion rate:
D = D0 e (Q/RT)
D0 and Q are constants, D0 is frequency factor,
Q activation energy,
R universal gas count. (2 Cal/node K)
Fraction of vacant site
nv/N = nf = e (Q/RT)
This results enhanced rate of climb at elevated
temperature.

102