Latin for

“poison”

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 We have all gotten viruses…
from bacteria, plants to animals.

Viruses cause colds, flu, warts and diseases

such as measles, AIDS and cancer.

BUT not all viruses cause diseases,

AND not all viruses are harmful to humans.

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WHAT IS A VIRUS?

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A VIRUS is a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA),
enclosed by a protein coat called a CAPSID.

DNA CAPSID

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Why are some viruses harmful?
Virus invades cell
When your cells
make viruses
instead of
operating normally,
Virus forces cell to make copies of virus YOU get sick

Eventually so many copies are

made, the cell explodes,
releasing all of the new viruses

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Examples of some viral diseases:
DISEASE VIRUSES
AIDS HIV

Wart Herpes Simplex

Virus

Flu Influenza

Measles Morbillivirus .

Cancer Hepatitis B

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 Who do viruses infect?
Viruses usually infect a specific host including:

Viruses infect Bacteria

• These viruses are called bacteriophages
Viruses infect Plants
• One example is the Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Viruses infect Animals
• One example is the common cold

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Defining Properties of Viruses

Viruses are parasites that invade cells

Viruses have either DNA (Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid) or RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Viruses direct the synthesis of new virus
within a host cell.
Newly made viruses infect other cells.

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How small is a virus?

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Comparative Sizes of Bacteria &
Viruses

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 Size: 20 to 14,000 nm in length
1 nm = 0.00000004 inches

If a cell was the size of your classroom, then an average virus would
be the size of a softball.
proteins

animal
atom

viruses bacteria cells

0m
10-6 m 10-5 m

10-7 m

10-8 m

10-9 m
Go five more feet!
10-10 m

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Structure

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 Structure
Nucleic acid
• DNA or RNA
• Single-stranded or double-stranded
• Linear or circular
Capsid
• Protects virus from the environment
• Serves as a vehicle of transmission & basis for classification
• Accounts for the mass of a virus
• Made up of capsomeres

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 Structure
Envelope
• Consists of lipids, proteins & carbohydrates
• May or may not be covered with spikes
Spikes
• Carbohydrate-protein complexes that project
from the surface of the envelope
• Means of host cell attachment
• Project from capsids in naked viruses
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 Morphological Types
Based on capsid architecture
Classified with the aid of electron microscope
& x-ray crystallography
Types:
• Helical
• Polyhedral
• Enveloped
• Complex
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 Helical Viruses
Resemble long rods
Rigid or flexible
Nucleic acid found within a hollow, cylindrical capsid that
has a helical structure
Example: tobacco mosaic virus, bacteriophage M13

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Helical Viruses

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 Helical Capsids RNA

Helical capsids are rod-

like structures with the
RNA in the center of the
helix. A helix is made by
stacking repeating units
in a spiral.

protein coat

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 Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is an example of a virus with a helical
structure. Protein subunits wrap around the spiraling RNA strand.

This image taken using an Electron Microscope

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 Polyhedral Viruses
Many-sided
Capsid shape: icosahedron (20 equilateral
triangular faces & 12 corners)
Examples: adenovirus, poliovirus

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 Icosahedral Capsids
Some viral protein subunits assemble to make polyhedral (many
sided) structures. The most common structure is the
icosahedron. An icosahedron has 20 triangular faces and has
2-fold, 3-fold and 5-fold symmetry axes.

A body with cubic symmetry possesses a number of axes about

which it may be rotated to give a number of identical
appearances.

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 Icosahedral Capsids
The DNA or RNA is found in the center or the core of the
capsid.

The occurrence of icosahedral features in quite unrelated

viruses suggests that icosahedral symmetry is preferred in
virus structure.

DNA Capsid (Protein Coat)

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Images of Icosahedral Viruses

Actual images of several

different icosahedral viruses.

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 Enveloped Viruses
Roughly spherical
When helical or polyhedral viruses are
enclosed by envelopes, they are called
enveloped helical or polyhedral viruses
Examples:
• Enveloped helical: influenza virus
• Enveloped polyhedral: herpes simplex virus

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 Enveloped Viruses
Enveloped viruses are viruses which have a membrane
coat surrounding the protein coat or capsid. These
viruses are common in animal viruses, but are uncommon
in plant viruses.

Herpes Simplex Virus.

A membrane (made of
proteins) surrounds the
capsid (also made of
proteins) which surrounds
the viral DNA.
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 Complex Viruses
Complicated structures
Example:
bacteriophage,
poxviruses

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 Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria.

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 Taxonomy
Viral species: A group of viruses sharing
the same genetic information and ecological
niche (host)
Family names end in –viridae
Genus names end in -virus
Common names are used for species
Subspecies are designated by a number
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 Taxonomy
Based on:
• Nucleic acid type (e.g. Hepadnaviridae,
Picornaviridae)
• Morphology
• Presence/absence of an envelope
• Disease it cause (e.g. Poxviridae)

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 Examples
Virus Family Disease
Coronaviridae SARS
Poxviridae Smallpox, Cowpox
Herpesviridae Chickenpox
Papoviridae Warts, Tumors
Hepadnaviridae Hepatitis B

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 Identification of Viruses
Cytopathic effects
Serological tests
• Detect antibodies against viruses in a patient
• Use antibodies to identify viruses in neutralization tests,
viral hemagglutination, and Western blot
Nucleic acids
• Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
• DNA fingerprints
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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How do viruses replicate?

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 Replication Phases
I, II, III - Viruses enter cell Phase I
- Attachment to cell membrane
- Penetration inside cell
- Losing virus protein coat

IV - Replication
- Tricks cell into making
more viral DNA
- Tricks cell into making
viral protein coat

V - Release Phase II
- Assembly of virus
DNA and protein
coat into whole
new viruses
- Leaving the cell Phase III Phase IV Phase V

http://www.cat.cc.md.us/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/viruses/adlyt.html
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 Viral Multiplication
Invasion of host cell is necessary
Types of bacteriophage multiplication
• Lytic cycle - ends with the lysis & death of
host cell
• Lysogenic cycle - host cell remains alive;
prophage DNA incorporated in host DNA

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 Lytic cycle of a T-even bacteriophage
Bacterial Bacterial Capsid DNA
cell wall chromosome
Capsid

Sheath
1
Tail fiber
Attachment: Tail
Base plate
Phage attaches
to host cell. Pin
Cell wall
Plasma membrane

2
Penetration:
Phage pnetrates
host cell and
injects its DNA. Sheath contracted

Tail core
3
Merozoites released
into bloodsteam
from liver may
infect new red Virus 35
blood cells
 Lytic cycle of a T-even bacteriophage

Tail
DNA

4 Maturation:
Viral components
are assembled into Capsid
virions.

5 Release:
Host cell lyses and
new virions are Tail fibers
released.

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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 The Lysogenic Cycle

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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
3 Important Results of Lysogeny
 Lysogenic cells are immune to reinfection
by the same phage
 Host cell may exhibit new properties
 Specialized transduction
Process of transferring a piece of cell DNA
adjacent to a prophage to another cell

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 Specialized Transduction
Prophage gal gene Bacterial DNA

1 Prophage exists in galactose-using host

(containing the gal gene).
Galactose-positive
donor cell gal gene
2 Phage genome excises, carrying
with it the adjacent gal gene from
the host.

gal gene 3 Phage matures and cell lyses, releasing

phage carrying gal gene.

4 Phage infects a cell that cannot utilize

galactose (lacking gal gene).
Galactose-negative
recipient cell
5 Along with the prophage, the bacterial gal
gene becomes integrated into the new
host’s DNA.

6 Lysogenic cell can now metabolize

galactose.
Galactose-positive recombinant cell Virus 39
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Multiplication of Animal Viruses
Follows basic pattern of bacteriophage
multiplication but with notable differences
• Mechanism of entering the host cell
• Synthesis & assembly of new viral components
• Presence of certain types of enzymes
• Mechanisms of maturation & release
• Effects on the host cell

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 Multiplication of Animal Viruses
Attachment Attaches to cell membrane

Penetration By endocytosis or fusion

Uncoating By viral or host enzymes

Biosynthesis Production of nucleic acid & proteins

Maturation Nucleic acid & capsid proteins assemble
Release By budding (enveloped viruses) or rupture

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 Bacteriophage Vs. Viral Multiplication
Stage Bacteriophage Animal Viruses

Attachment Tail fibers attach to cell Attachment sites are plasma

wall proteins membrane proteins &
glycoproteins
Penetration Viral DNA injected into Capsid enters by endocytosis or
host cell fusion
Uncoating Not required Enzymatic removal of capsid
proteins
Biosynthesis In cytoplasm In nucleus (DNA viruses) or
cytoplasm (RNA viruses)
Chronic infection Lysogeny Latency; slow viral infections;
cancer
Release Host cell lysed Enveloped viruses bud out; non-
enveloped viruses rupture plasma
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 Inhibition of Virus
Phagocytosis
Neutralization by antibodies
Interaction with T-lymphocytes
Drugs
Vaccines

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 Inactivation of Viruses
Physical agents – heat, UV light, X-rays
Chemical agents – halogen (chlorine &
iodine), heavy metals (Hg, Ag, phenol
derivatives), formaldehyde, & lipid solvents
(ether, chloroform, detergents)

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 Virus & Cancer
Excess tissue develops into a tumor
• Malignant – cancerous
• Benign – non-cancerous
Named by the attachment of the suffix –oma to the
name of the tissue from which the tumor arises
• Sarcoma – cancer of the connective tissue
• Adenocarcinoma – cancer of glandular epithelial tissue
Oncovirus – cause cancer

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 Cancer Cells
Undergo mitosis more rapidly
Stick together less firmly
Undergo dedifferentiation
Fail to exhibit contact inhibition
Do not adhere to one another
Overgrow to one another
Metastasize – spread to different body parts
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 How Cancer Bring Illness
Interrupts normal functions
Robs the body of vital nutrients
Produces hormones & overloads the body
with chemical regulators
Block air passageways

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 Carcinogens
Cancer-causing substances
Radiation (UV light & X-ray)
Hydrocarbons – cigarette smoke, asbestos,
nickel, certain pesticides, dyes &
environmental pollutants

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 Prions
Proteinaceous infectious particles
Inherited and transmissible by ingestion,
transplant, & surgical instruments
Spongiform encephalopathies: mad cow
disease, kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
(CJD), Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker
syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, Sheep
scrapie
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 The concept of a virus as an organism
challenges the way we define life:

* Viruses do not breathe.

* Viruses do not metabolize.
* Viruses do not grow.
* However, they do reproduce.

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 Are Viruses Living?

Properties of Living Properties of Viruses

Organisms
Breathes (respires) Doesn’t breathe

Metabolizes Doesn’t metabolize

Grows Doesn’t grow

Reproduces Reproduces

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 Techniques to Study Viruses
X-ray Crytallography – X-
rays are directed at a
sample. How those rays
scatter can be used to
determine the structure of
that sample

Atomic Force Microscope –

A tiny tip probes a surface,
from which the shape of the
surface can be determined
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 Sedimentary
Centrifugation – A
sample is spun so
fast, different
elements in it are
separated by
Filters – Very density
small holes in
material filter
only viruses
through Electron Microscope
– Electrons are
smaller than light
wavelengths, so
viruses can be “seen”
by reflecting
electrons off of
them
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 Viruses Can Help Cells, Too
- Since viruses can transport DNA and RNA
into cells, scientists are exploring Gene
Therapy

- In Gene Therapy, viral genetic material is

replaced with new DNA

- In time, this could be used to cure genetic

diseases. Currently we have no cure for
these types of illnesses
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