Reciprocating Engines

Overview
By Charlie Cote
and
Bill Ryan
ES106
Woodward Industrial Controls

Recip Engine Topics

Engine Types
Applications
Combustion Process
Combustion Controls
Exhaust Emissions
Engine Efficiency
Question & Answer

Integral Compressor

Marine Propulsion

Engine Family Tree

E n g in e F a m ily T r e e
P o w e r e n g in e s

N o n C o m b u s t io n
E n g in e s

C o m b u s t io n E n g in e s

H y d ro
E x t e r n a l c o m b u s tio n E n g in e s

I n t e r n a l c o m b u s t io n E n g in e s

C a r n o t ( r e v e r s ib le )
S t e a m T u rb in e s

C o n tin u o u s C o m b u s t io n
E n g in e s

I n t e r m it t e n t C o m b u s t i o n
E n g in e s

S t ir lin g C y c le E n g in e s
G a s T u r b in e s

R e c i p r o c a t in g P i s t o n E n g i n e s

Reciprocating Engine Family

R e c ip r o c a t in g ( P is t o n )
E n g in e s

C o m p re s s io n I g n it io n
( C I ) E n g in e s

F u e ls

C y c le

D ie s e l
4 S t r o k e C y c le
(C e ta n e # )
2 S t r o k e C y c le
H e a v y D ie s e l
( C e t a n e # , v is c o s it y )
DualFuel
( u s u a lly D ie s e l
and G aseous)

A s p ir a t io n
n a tu ra l
S u p e r c h a rg e d
T u rb o c h a rg e d

S p a r k I g n it io n
( S I ) E n g in e s

F u e l d e liv e ry
U n it in je c t o r
J e rk p u m p
a n d n o z z le
U n it p u m p
a n d N o z z le

F u e ls

C y c le

G a s o lin e
4 s t r o k e C y c le
( O c a t a n e # ) 2 s t r o k e C y c le
G aseous
( H e a t in g V a lu e )

A s p ir a t io n
N a tu ra l
S u p e r c h a rg e d
T u rb o c h a rg e d

F u e l d e liv e ry
C a rb u re te d
(h o m o g e n e o u s c h a rg e )
P o r t in je c t e d
D ir e c t in je c t e d
( s t r a t ifie d c h a r g e )

Recip Engine Types

Two-Stroke Cycle and Four-Stroke Cycle
Fuel Types

Gasoline
Natural Gas and other gases.
Diesel (Light and Heavy)
Dual Fuel (Natural Gas/Diesel, Digester/Diesel)
Future Fuels (Coal/Water, Orimulsion, etc.)

Ignition Types
Spark
Diesel

Four-Stroke Cycle Engines

Four Strokes per combustion Cycle
Only one Power Stroke every four cylinder
strokes
Two full engine crankshaft revolutions for
one complete combustion cycle
Common for small to large engines

Four-Stroke Cycle
Intake Stroke
Intake

Compression Stroke

Four-Stroke Cycle
Power Stroke

Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

Two Strokes per combustion Cycle
One Power Stroke every other cylinder
stroke
One full engine crankshaft revolution for
one complete combustion cycle
More common for large spark gas engines
and small gasoline engines.

Two-Stroke Cycle
Compression

Combustion

Two-Stroke Cycle
Exhaust

Intake & Scavenging

Gas Injection
Exhaust
Opens

Exhaust
Discharge

Air
Opens

Air
Intake

Cooper-Bessemer
GMV Series 2-Cycle
Clean-Burn
Engine Section

Power
Piston

Power
Cylinder
Liner

Connecting
Rod

Recip Engine Applications

On-Highway Vehicles (autos, trucks, motorcycles, etc.)

Off-Highway Machinery (lawn mowers, snowmobiles,
farm equipment, construction and mining equipment, etc.)

Marine (propulsion and generation)

Industrial Pumps
Railroad Locomotives
Power Generators (portable and stationary)
Compressors (natural gas, CO2 , air, etc.)

Compressor Station
Yard Valves & Piping

Recip Engine Applications

Advantages of Reciprocating Engines

They offer a wide range of speed and horsepower to
closely match the driven load requirements.
Variable speed applications
Mean time between major overhaul is 50,000 hours
Long installed life (50+ years).
They work with a wide variety of fuels.
Compressors can be mounted integral to the engine and
compressed gas services can be mixed.
Slight efficiency advantage over turbines (40% - 38%).
Advantage increases with smaller sizes (40% - 34%).
Nox emissions of 120 ppm comparable to smaller
turbines (5 mw). Larger turbines (25-30 mw) produce
lower Nox emissions (50 ppm).

Reciprocating Integral Compressor

Compressor
Cylinder

Recip Engine Rating Ranges

Gasoline Engines
31 Worldwide Manufacturers *
Kubota,

GH100, 2.3 hp, 3200 rpm,

2.2 bore x 1.6 stroke (smallest hp)
Lamborghini, L9001, 670 hp, 4000 rpm,
4.15 bore x 3.5 stroke (largest hp)

*Refer to Diesel and Gas Turbine Worldwide Catalog,

1998 for a detailed listing of all engine manufacturers.

Recip Engine Rating Ranges

Spark Gas Engines *

28 Worldwide Manufacturers
Arrow

Specialty Co, C-46, 400-800 rpm, 5-10 hp

(smallest hp)
Dresser-Rand, TCVD-20, 330 rpm, 10202 hp, 17.7
bore x 19 stroke (largest hp)

Recip Engine Rating Ranges

Diesel Engines
118 Worldwide Manufacturers *
Hatz

Diesel, 1B20, 1.9-4.6 hp, 1500-3600 rpm,

2.7 bore x 2.44 stroke (smallest hp)
MAN B&W Diesel, K98MC, 38487-92046 hp,
84-94 rpm, 38.6 bore x 104.7 stroke (largest hp)
CAT Diesel 3500/3600 family, 600-9655 hp
(major Woodward customer)

Caterpillar G3516 Tandem

Gas Engine Generator set

Recip Engine Rating Ranges

Dual Fuel (Gas/Diesel) Engines *

19 Worldwide Manufacturers
Wis-Con

Total Power, W2-1250, 1800-3600 rpm,

17.7-30 hp (smallest hp)
MAN B&W Diesel, L&V4/60DG, 514 rpm, 724121724 hp, 18.9 bore x 23.6 stroke (largest hp)

2-Cycle, Spark Gas

Reciprocating Engine

BREAK

BREAK

BREAK

BREAK

BREAK
BREAK

BREAK

BREAK

BREAK

BREAK

Recip Combustion Process

Normal Combustion
Three Necessary Elements
Fuel

(to regulate engine speed and load)

Air (in the proper ratio to fuel for complete
combustion)
Ignition (at the proper time to produce power
efficiently within engine design pressure limits)

Recip Combustion Process

Abnormal Combustion and some Causes

Misfiring (late partial or no burning)
Weak

Ignition
Mixture Too Lean
Inconsistent Mixing

Detonation (rapid burning)

Mixture

Too Rich
Fuel Quality
Ignition Timing Advanced Too Far

Recip Combustion Process

Abnormal Combustion (continued)

Pre-ignition (premature burning)
Hot

Spots in the Combustion Chamber

Ignition Timing Extremely Advanced

Pre-Ignition

Normal Combustion

Misfire

Recip Combustion Controls

Governors
Air/Fuel Ratio
Ignition Timing

Governors

General Description
The Governor monitors and controls engine speed and/or load
by regulating the fuel delivered to the engine power cylinders.
The fuel delivered is changed by the controller output signal
to a fuel gas or fuel oil actuator. On Dual Fuel engines, this
output controls both fuel gas and fuel oil, either through
mechanical linkage or by separate outputs to two actuators.
Governors may be simple speed controls or may also include
Droop and Isochronous Load Sharing controls.

Speed and Load Control

(Governing)

CI Engines
Unit injector engines
Mechanical actuator on common fuel rack

Unit pump engines

Actuator on common fuel rack
Injection duration control (EDIS)

Jerk pump engines

Actuator on volume control lever

All systems use engine speed sensors

Speed and Load Control

(Governing)

SI Engines
Carbureted (homogeneous charge) engines
Actuator on throttle valve (controlling air flow only)

Port injected engines (single point and multiport)

Duration of injection control

Direct injected (stratified charge) engines

Actuator on fuel manifold pressure control valve
Duration control of gas admission valves

All systems use engine speed sensors

Gas Valve
PG/PL

Fuel
Gas

Piping

Air/Fuel Ratio

Definition
The mass of air flow divided by the mass of fuel flow
consumed by the engine (sometimes we cheat).

Types
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Digital Electric

System
Speed/ Load Sensors
Controller
Actuator/ Linkage/ Valve

Air/Fuel Ratio

Why is Air/Fuel Ratio Important ?

Primary factor in emissions formation
Improves engine efficiency
Has a strong effect on cylinder component
temperature (valves, heads, plugs, etc.)
Affects pre-turbine exhaust temperature
Strong effect on detonation and misfire.

Air/Fuel Ratio

General Description
The Air/Fuel Ratio controller monitors engine speed and load
inputs and regulates the intake air manifold pressure.
The Air/Fuel Ratio is changed by the controller output signal
to a control valve. This valve increases or decreases air
manifold pressure by partially bypassing exhaust gas around
a turbocharger, dumping air at the turbocharger air discharge
or throttling the intake air or by adjusting fuel gas pressure.
Optimum Air/Fuel Ratio settings produce the lowest fuel
consumption or the lowest emissions parameter.

Turbocharger

Air
Inle
t
Pipe

Exhaust
Bypass
Valve

Exhaust
Discharge
Piping

Blower

Air Intake
Piping

Inlet Air Butterfly

Valve and Actuator

Air/Fuel Ratio

Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio

The chemically correct amounts of air and fuel
such that all of the oxygen in the air and the fuel
are consumed after combustion
Natural Gas (Methane) stoichiometric
AFR=17.1 to 1
LAMBDA( is the ratio of the actual AFR to
the theoretical stoichiometric AFR
At 17.1 to 1 stoichiometric AFR... = 1.0
Exhaust O2 percentage rises with AFR

Air/Fuel Ratio
INTAKE

EXHAUST

CH4 + 2O2 >> CO2 + 2H2O

WASTE PRODUCTS

METHANE
FROM AIR

N2

CO
CH4
NO
NO2

Air/Fuel Ratio

Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio

Commonly called Rich-Burn
If proper combustion takes place, there is no
Oxygen left in the exhaust
Runs near to Stoichiometric, but at Stoich NOX,
CO and HC are high
A 3-way CAT can eliminate most pollutants
CATs are very efficient, but only at Stoich

How Air/Fuel Ratio Affects Emissions

CO

NOX
HC

HC

CO

15

17

19

21

23

Air Fuel Ratio

25

27

29

Air/Fuel Ratio

Lean-Burn Air/Fuel Ratio

Studies found that when combustion
temperatures are decreased, NO and NO2
production is decreased.
By adding extra air, the temperature can be
reduced, thereby decreasing NOX levels.
However, too much air can cause problems
igniting the mixture, so high energy (torch)
ignition systems are required.

HOW AFR AFFECTS EMISSIONS

CO

LEAN-BURN
OPERATING WINDOW

NOX

HC

HC

CO

15

17

19

21

23

Air/Fuel Ratio

25

27

29

Air/Fuel Ratio

Lean-Burn Air/Fuel Ratio

Successful running with a AFR of 27 to 30
exhibits a significant reduction in NOX
Slower flame speed of lean mixture requires a
higher energy ignition system
Further leaning out will reduce NOX at a lesser
rate
If the AFR is too lean the mixture reaches the
misfire limit.

Ignition Energy

Required Ignition Energy vs. AFR

14

16

18

20

22

Air/Fuel Ratio

24

26

28

Ignition Timing

Types
Pneumatic
Digital Electric

System
Speed/ Load Sensors
Controller
Actuator/ Timer

Ignition Timing

Effects of Ignition Timing

Fuel Savings by controlling Ignition Timing
Exhaust temps increase by retarding timing
which can increase air manifold pressure and
save turbo assist air by increasing turbo speed
As manifold temp or fuel heating value
increases, retarding the timing reduces the
chances of detonation

Ignition Timing - Spark

General Description
The Ignition Timing controller monitors engine parameters
and tells the Ignition timer where, in the combustion cycle,
to fire the spark plug.
The ignition timing is changed by the controller output
signal to an electronic timer or to a mechanical actuator
that physically rotates the timer.
Engine testing establishes the ignition timing schedule
and which parameters are monitored by the controller .

Governor

Ignition

Governor

Fuel Injection Timing - Diesel

General Description
The Ignition Timing of diesel engines is commonly called
Fuel Injection Timing and is generally not variable. The
Mechanical design of the camshaft, fuel injection pumps
and fuel injectors and their installation settings determine
diesel fuel injection timing.
Some fuel injection pumps are built with variable timing
linkage for external fuel injection timing control. These
injector types are beneficial with alternate fuel types.

Reciprocating Engines
Overview

Question & Answer period

Thank you for your attendance!!!

2-Cycle Integral
Engine Compressor

Oxygen Concentration

Exhaust Oxygen Concentration

vs. Air Fuel Ratio

15

17

19

21

23

Air Fuel Ratio

25

27

29

HOW AFR AFFECTS CAT EFFICIENCY

CATALYTIC CONVERTER EFFICIENCY

CO
HC
NOX

NARROW OPERATING AFR

WINDOW FOR A 3-WAY CAT

HC

CO

15

NOX
17

19

21

23

Air Fuel Ratio

25

27

29

AIR/FUEL RATIO

3-WAY CATALYTIC CONVERTER

REDUCES NOX
2CO

+ 2NO >> 2CO2 + N2

OXIDIZES HYDROCARBONS(HC)
CH4

+ 2O2 >> CO2 + 2H2O

OXIDIZES CARBON MONOXIDE(CO)

2CO

+ O2 >> 2CO2

Combustion Temperatures

How Temperature Varies With AFR

10

12

14

16

18

Air Fuel Ratio

20

23

25

Flame Speed

Flame Speed vs. AFR

14

16

18

20

22

Air/Fuel Ratio

24

26

Exhaust Oxygen Percentage and NOx Concentration

Pre and Post IGEM
11

4500

10

4000

9
O2 FloTech Open

3500

O2 IGEM Control

NOx FloTech Open

NOx IGEM Control

3000

2500

2000

4
1500
3
1000
2
500

0
50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Engine Load, kW

500

550

600

650

700

750

0
800

NOx, ppm

Exhaust Oxygen, %

Cylinder Pressure

IGNITION AND ITS AFFECTS

Start of Ignition

40

BTDC

20

TDC

20

CRANK ANGLE

40

60

80

ATDC