Relational DBMS and Normalization

WELCOME TO THIS COURSE DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
UNIT-I
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATA MODELING
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
UNIT-II
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND

NORMALISATION
DATABASE DESIGN AND ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODELLING
SQL: QUERIES AND SUBQUERIES

UNIT-III
DATABASE SECURITY AND INTEGRITY


UNIT I
CHAPTER I
UNIT I
Database Management System
A collection of programs that enables to store, modify, and extract

information from a database.
There are many different types of DBMSs, ranging from small systems
that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on
mainframes.
Updating
data
Extractio
n of data
Database
Management
System
Modification of
data
Storing of
data
UNIT I
Process of Database
UNIT I
Database Organisation
Database Organisation defines how and where the data are organised in
physical storage.
Phases of Database Organisation
External schema: Defines views of the database for individual user.

Conceptual schema : Describes the stored data structure, data types,
relationships, operations and constraints.
Internal schema : Defines how and where the data are organised in
physical storage.
Desig
n
Developme
nt
UNIT I
Major Components of Database
Basic
Components
Description
Commands used
CREATE DATABASE (To create a
database): CREATE DATABASE
<database-name> ;
DROP DATABASE (To removes the
database) : DROP DATABASE
<database-name> ;
CREATE TABLE (To create tables) :
CREATE TABLE <table-name> ( ...);
DROP TABLE (removes the table) :
DROP TABLE <table-name> ;
ALTER TABLE (To alter tables after
the creation of table) :
ALTER TABLE <table-name> ADD
<field-name> <data-type>
ALTER TABLE <table-name> DROP
<field-name>
ALTER TABLE <table-name>
MODIFY <field-name> <new-fielddeclaration>
DDL (Data
Definition
Language )
It is used to create
and destroy
databases and
database objects.
UNIT I
Major Components of Database
Basic
Descriptio Commands used
Component n
s
DML (Data
Modified
Language )
Modification
of data like
insert, select
and update
data.
INSERT Statement (To get data into a

database):
INSERT INTO <table-name>
(<column1>,<column2>,<column3>,...)
VALUES (<column-value1>,<columnvalue2>,<column-value3>);
SELECT Statement (To select the statement in
the database): SELECT <column-list>
FROM <table-list>
WHERE <search-condition>
UPDATE Statement (To update statement):
UPDATE
<table-name> SET <column1> = <value1>,
<column2> = <value2>, ...
WHERE <criteria>
DELETE Statement (To delete the statement):
DELETE FROM <table-name>
WHERE <criteria>
UNIT I
Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS

Advantages
Redundancies and inconsistencies can be reduced

Better service to the Users
Flexibility of the system is improved
Cost of developing and maintaining systems is lower
Security can be improved
Enterprise requirements can be identified
Data model must be developed
Disadvantages
Increased Complexity and size

Specialised manpower and increased installation and
management cost
Need for explicit backup and recovery
Confidentiality, Privacy and Security
CHAPTER II
DATA MODELING
DATA MODELING
UNIT I
Introduction of Data Modeling
Data modeling is used for representing entities of interest and their

relationships in the database.
Provide the way of structuring the data
Allow a set of manipulative operations like updating and retrieving the
data from the database
Types
of Data
Model
Implementati
on Data
Model
High level
or
conceptua
l
Ex: E-R
Model
Hierarc
hical
Data
Model
Network
Data
Model
Relation
al Data
Model
Physical
Data
Model
Object
Based
Data
Model
Semi
structure
d Data
Model
Explain how
data stored
on disk and
what access
methods are
available
UNIT I
DATA MODELING
Conceptual Data Model
It describes the information used by an organisation.

The main advantage of Conceptual data model is that it is independent of
implementation details and understood by non technical background enduser.
Implementation Data Model
Implementation Data Model hide some data storage details from the user.
Some of the data models:
Hierarchial data model:
i.
It is a tree like structure having both child and parent node.
ii. Each child node can have only one parent node.
iii. It comprises of a set of records connected to one another through
links.
Network data model:
i.
Data is represented by a collections of records, relationship among
data are
represented by links.
ii. All nodes are link to each other without any hierarchy.
iii. It is organised in the form of graphs.
iv. It is quite complicated to handle.
UNIT I
DATA MODELING
Relational data model:

i. It does not contain any physical link.
ii. All data is maintained in the form of tables.
Object based data model:

i. It is the extension of relational data model.
ii. It combines the feature of both relational model and object oriented data model
Physical Data Model:
Physical Data Model describes the data in terms of collection of files, indices
and other storage structure.
It describes how the data is stored in disk and what access methods are
available

UNIT II
CHAPTER III
INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
UNIT II
INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Relational Database Management System
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.

The database tables are the primary data storage for every RDBMS.
MS SQL Server, DB2, Oracle and MySQL are all Relational Database
Management Systems.
The Relational Data Structure

Data structures are composed of two components:
ENTITY TYPES- i.e. data group types:
Represented by relations and base table.
A base table is loosely defined as an un-ordered collection of zero, one or
more tuples (rows).
Each row of a table is uniquely identified by a PRIMARY KEY composed of
one or more columns.
Superkey, primary key and candidate key are also applicable to the
relational model.
UNIT II
Key
A set of attributes constituting a key is a property of the relational

schema.
A key is determined from the meaning of the attributes and the

property.
A column, or group of columns, that uniquely identifies a row in a table

is called a CANDIDATE KEY.
The Candidate Key cannot contain NULL value and should always
contain a unique value.
Primary key is the candidate key in the relation whose values are used
to identify tuples.
UNIT II
Constraints
Constraints are logic rules that are used to ensure data consistency.
Major integrity constraints:
Domain constraints: Value of each attribute must be atomic from the
domain.
The major components of domain constrains:
a. Domain name
b. Meaning
c. Data type
d. Size or length
Entity integrity constraints:
a. It states that no part of a primary key field can contain NULL value.
b. The primary key value is used to identify individual tuples in a relation.
c. Entity integrity constraints are specified on the individual relations.
Referential integrity constraints:
a. Concept of relationships between tables, based on the definition of a
primary key and a foreign key.
b. Referential integrity is a mechanism which prevents accidental database
corruptions when doing inserts, updates, and deletes.
c. Referential constraint provide security to the database.
Operational constraints: These constraints are used in an organisation for
business rules and policies.
UNIT II
Codds 12 Rules
Rule 1
The information rule
Rule 2
The guaranteed access rule
Rule 3
Rule 4
Rule 5
Rule 6
Rule7
Rule 8
Systematic treatment of null values

Active online catalogue based on the relational model
The comprehensive data sub-language rule

The view-updating rule
High-level insert, update, and delete
Physical data independence
UNIT II
Codds 12 Rules
Rule 8
The information rule
Rule 9
Logical data independence
Rule 10
Integrity independence
Rule 11
Distribution independence
Rule 12
The no subversion rule
CHAPTER IV
RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND
NORMALISATION
UNIT II
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION
Relational Database Design
The main objective of logical data model is to create an accurate representation

of data.
The Normalization technique is used to achieve the objective.
Four commonly used normal forms:
First Normalization (1NF)
Second Normalization (2NF)
Third Normalization (3NF)
The main aim of relational database design is to group attributes into relation
to minimize the redundancy.
Process of Normalization
Un-Normalized Normal Form (UNF)

First Normal Form (1NF)
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Third Normal Form (3NF)
UNIT II
Unnormalized Normal Form (UNF)
A table that contains one or more repeating groups

To create an unnormalized table
Transform the data from the information source (e.g. form) into table
format with columns and rows.
Example: Un-normalized Student Table
UNIT II
The requirements to satisfy the 1st NF:
Each table has a primary key: minimal set of attributes which can
uniquely identify a record
The values in each column of a table are atomic (No multi-value
attributes allowed).
There are no repeating groups: two columns do not store similar
information in the same table.
Example: Normalized Student

Table
UNIT II
The requirements to satisfy the 2nd NF:
All requirements for 1st NF must be met.

Redundant data across multiple rows of a table must be moved to a
separate table.
The resulting tables must be related to each other by use of foreign key.
Registration Table
Student Table
UNIT II
The requirements to satisfy the 3rd NF:
All requirements for 2nd NF must be met.

Eliminate fields that do not depend on the primary key;
That is, any field that is dependent not only on the primary key but
also on another field must be moved to another table.
Student Table
Registration
Table
Advisor Table
UNIT II
BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal

Form)
BCNF is based on the concept of a determinant.
A determinant is any attribute (simple or composite) on which some other

attribute is fully functionally dependent.
A relation is in BCNF is, and only if, every determinant is a candidate key.
Consider the following relation and determinants.

R(a,b,c,d)
a,c -> b,d
a,d -> b
Here, the first determinant suggests that the primary key of R could be changed
from a,b to a,c. If this change was done all of the non-key attributes present in R
could still be determined, and therefore this change is legal. However, the
second determinant indicates that a,d determines b, but a,d could not be the key
of R as a,d does not determine all of the non key attributes of R (it does not
determine c).
CHAPTER V
DATABASE DESIGN AND ENTITYRELATIONSHIP MODELLING
UNIT II
Design Process
Data to be
stored
Superimpose a
logical structure
upon the data
Determine
relationship
between
different Data
Determining the
group of
information
Determine the
relationship
between the
groups
UNIT II
The Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-relationship model is a data modeling method used to model a system

An entity-relationship model (ERM) is a representation of structured data and
entity-relationship
The end-product of the modeling process is an entity-relationship diagram
(ERD)
The E-R (entity-relationship) data model views the real world as a set of basic
objects
The first stage of information system design uses these models during the
requirements analysis.
An information system that is based on a database, the conceptual data
model is, mapped
Notations
of E-R to a logical data model, such as the relational model
Diagram
Symbol
Meaning
Entity
Weak Entity
Relationship
UNIT II
Components of an E-R Model

Major components of E-r Model:
People
Lives in
Names
UNIT II
Entities and Entity Sets
An entity may be concrete (a person or a book, for example) or abstract (like a

holiday or a concept).
Entity sets need not be disjoint. For example, the entity set employee (all
employees of a bank).
An entity has a name and is represented by a set of attributes. E.g. name,
Cust_Id, street, city for customer entity.
The domain of the attribute is the set of permitted values
Attributes
Every entity is described by a set of (attribute, data value) pairs.
Types of attributes:
Simple and Composite Attributes: Attribute which is composed of a single
component with an independent existence is called the simple attribute.
Single valued and multi-valued attribute: The attributes that hold a single
value for a single entity are single valued.Ex: an enrolment number attribute
for the particular student may refer to only one enrolment number
Null Attributes : A null value is used when an entity does not have a value
for an attribute.
Derived attributes: The value for this type of attribute can be derived from
the values of other related attributes or entities.
UNIT II
Entity-Relationship Diagram
Definition:
An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates the
interrelationships between entities in database.
Sample E-R
Diagram
UNIT II
Terms Associated with Entities:

Degree
The degree of a relationship is the number of entities that participate in the
relationship.
The degree is of three types:
Unary Relationships
Binary Relationships
Ternary relationship
Quaternary relationship
Cardinalities
Cardinality expresses the number of entities to which another entity can be
associated via a relationship set.
A cardinality is expressed with the help an crowsfoot symbol ( ) in ERD.
The cardinality relationship must be one of the following points:
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-one
Many-to-many

UNIT III
CHAPTER VI
UNIT III
SQL Data Types

Integer
It represents a signed integer, decimal or

binary.
Smallint
It represents a signed integer, decimal or

binary.
SMALLINT must not exceed that of INT.
Double Precision
Double-precision floating point number.
DATE
Stores year, month and day values.
Time
Store the hour, minute and second values.
Timestamp
Stores year, month, day, hour, minute, and

second values
UNIT III
Clauses in SQL
SQL Data Query Language (DQL):
DQL has only one data query statement whose syntax is SELECT.
Syntax
SELECT [ DISTINCT | ALL ]
column_expression1, column_expression2, ....
[ FROM from_clause ]
[ WHERE where_expression ]
[ GROUP BY expression1, expression2, .... ]
[ HAVING having_expression ]
[ ORDER BY order_column_expr1, order_column_expr2, .... ]
Example
SELECT name FROM s WHERE city=Rome
Where "s" is the name of the table
List of suppliers
Supplier
Pierre
John
Mario
Location
Paris
London
Rome
UNIT III
The FROM Clause

The FROM clause always follows the SELECT clause.
Example
SELECT * FROM s
Here the entire table s is selected.
SELECT supplier.name FROM s supplier
Here only the supplier name is selected.
ORDER BY Clause
It must be the last clause in the SELECT statement.
The ORDER BY clause defines the ordering of rows based on columns from the
SELECT clause.
The ORDER BY clause has the following general format:
ORDER BY column-1 [ASC|DESC] [column-2 [ASC|DESC]]...
ORDER BY sorts rows using the ordering columns in left-to-right, major-to-minor
order.
UNIT III
Types of Functions
Basics types of functions:
Aggregate Functions
Scalar Functions
Aggregate Functions
Function
AVG (column)
Description
COUNT(*)
Returns the average value of a column

Returns the number of row (without a NULL value) of a
column.
Returns the number of selected rows
MAX(column)
Returns the highest value of a column
MIN(column)
Returns the lowest value of a column
SUM(column)
Returns the total sum of a column
COUNTS (Column)
UNIT III
Scalar Functions
Scalar functions operate against a single value, and return a single value based on
the input value. The built in functions:
SUBSTRING (exp-1 FROM exp-2 [FOR exp-3])
Extracts a substring from a string - exp-1, beginning at the integer value exp2, for the length of the integer value - exp-3
TRIM([LEADING|TRAILING|BOTH] [FROM] exp-1)
TRIM([LEADING|TRAILING|BOTH] exp-2 FROM
exp-1)
Trims leading, trailing or both characters from a string Data
exp-1. Definition Language (DDL)
1. The DDL provides commands for defining relation schemas, deleting relation
schemas and modifying relation schemas
2. The syntax of the commands are CREATE, ALTER and DROP
Syntax for CREATE Table
CREATE TABLE "table_name"
("column 1" "data_type_for_column_1",
"column 2" "data_type_for_column_2",
... )
CHAPTER VII
DATABASE SECURITY AND
INTEGRITY
UNIT III
Introduction to Database Security
Database security is the system, processes, and procedures that protect a

database from unintended activity.
Database Security is a specialty within the much broader area of computer
security.
Database Security Threats

Databases need to have level of security in order to protect the database
against both malicious and accidental threats.
Factors that drive the need for security
Theft and fraud
Confidentiality
Integrity
Privacy
Database availability
UNIT III
Data Tampering
Data tampering is the deliberate destruction or manipulation of data.

The tampering may or may not be detected until some time in the future.
The tampering may or may not be detected until some time in the future.
Beyond controlling access, sensitive data should be encrypted using hashes
and digital signatures.
Data Theft and Eavesdropping
Some popular methods are Ecommerce, Password cracking and

eavesdropping.
In eavesdropping the data sent on insecure lines can be wiretapped and
Password-Related
Threats
recorded.
They may also choose to standardize passwords so that they are the same on
all machines or web sites.
Users with complex passwords may write them down where an attacker can
easily find them .
They may also choose to standardize passwords so that they are the same on
all machines or web sites.
UNIT III
Data Security Requirements

Vulnerability Assessments
A vulnerability assessment attempts to find vulnerability holes that could
be used to break into the database.
Information security administrators run vulnerability scans on databases
to discover mis-configuration of controls.
Database objects may include table or other objects listed in
the table link.
Vulnerability assessment is a preliminary procedure to
determine risk where a compliance program is the process
of on-going risk assessment.
Monitoring of Database Protocol Traffic (SQL)
Security layer includes the real-time monitoring of database
protocol traffic (SQL) over the network.
When a network level audit system is not feasible a native
database audit program should be instituted.
A Database Security program should include the regular
review of permissions granted to individually.
UNIT III
Authentication
Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity.

Strong authentication requires providing information from two of the three
different types of authentication information.
Integrity
Integrity means that data should be protected from deletion and corruption.
Referential Integrity is the ability to maintain valid relationships between
values in the database.
Availability
There are number of aspects in system availability:
Resistance: User profiles must be in place to define and limit the
resources any given user may consume
Scalability: System performance must remain adequate regardless
of the number of users or processes
Flexibility: Administrators must have adequate means of
managing the user population
Ease-of-use: Availability of valid user to get the work done
CHAPTER VIII
DATABASE SECURITY AND
INTEGRITY
UNIT III
STRUCTURE, COMPONENTS, FUNCTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Introduction
The function of DBMS are supported by Operating System to provide

basic services.
The physical data and system catalog are stored on a physical disk.
Execution Steps of Operating

System
User issue a query
Passing the query to the

query optimizer and the
DBMS accepts the user
DBMS produces the

query evolution plan
DBMS executes the plan
UNIT III
Components of DBMS
Major software modules or components of DBMS are as follows:
Query processor
Run time database manager
DML processor
DDL processor
Query Processor
The query processor transforms user queries into series of low level
instructions.
It is used to interpret the online user query and convert it into an efficient
query.
Query processor
Runtime
Database
use Manager
the data dictionary to find the structure of relevant
portion.
It handles database during runtime.
The run time data manager then places a call to the physical database to
perform the request.
Major components of runtime database managers are authorisation control,

command processor and query optimizer.
UNIT III
DML Processor
DML processor converts the DML statements into standard function calls in
the host language.
The DML compiler converts the DML statements written in host
programming language into object code for database access.
DDL Processor
The DDL processor converts the DDL statements into a set of tables
containing metadata.
These tables are then stored in the system catalog while control
information is stored in data file headers.
The DDL compiler processes schema definitions, specified in the ddl and
stores description of the schema.
The system catalog includes information such as the names of data files,
data items, storage details.
UNIT III
Functions of DBMS
Data Storage Management

Data Manipulation Management
Data Definition Services
Data Dictionary/System Catalog Management
Database Communication Interfaces
Backup and Recovery Management
Data Independence Services
Transaction Management
Types of
DBMS
Types of DBMS
Centralised DBMS
Distributed DBMS
Client/Server DBMS
UNIT III
Centralized Database System

The centralised database system consists of a single processor together with its
associated data storage and other peripherals.
Distributed Database Systems
A distributed database is a database that is under the control of a central

database management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all
attached to a common CPU.
It may be stored in multiple computers located in the same physical location,
or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected computers.
UNIT III
Client/Server Database System
In client/server architecture the client is generally a desktop PC whereas the

server can be a large workstation.
The applications and tools of the DBMS run on one or more client platforms.
The server computer is called a backend and the clients computer is called
the frontend.

Relational DBMS and Normalization

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WELCOME TO THIS COURSE DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND

SQL: QUERIES AND SUBQUERIES

DATABASE SECURITY AND INTEGRITY

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database Management System

A collection of programs that enables to store, modify, and extract

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Phases of Database Organisation

External schema: Defines views of the database for individual user.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

INSERT Statement (To get data into a

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS

Redundancies and inconsistencies can be reduced

Increased Complexity and size

Data modeling is used for representing entities of interest and their

Conceptual Data Model

It describes the information used by an organisation.

Implementation Data Model

Relational data model:

Object based data model:

Physical Data Model:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Relational Database Management System

The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.

The Relational Data Structure

INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

A set of attributes constituting a key is a property of the relational

A key is determined from the meaning of the attributes and the

A column, or group of columns, that uniquely identifies a row in a table

INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The information rule

The guaranteed access rule

Systematic treatment of null values

The comprehensive data sub-language rule

INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The information rule

Logical data independence

The no subversion rule

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION

Relational Database Design

The main objective of logical data model is to create an accurate representation

Un-Normalized Normal Form (UNF)

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION

Unnormalized Normal Form (UNF)

A table that contains one or more repeating groups

Example: Un-normalized Student Table

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION

The requirements to satisfy the 1st NF:

Example: Normalized Student

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION

The requirements to satisfy the 2nd NF:

All requirements for 1st NF must be met.

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND NORMALISATION