Chapter 18: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, temperature, and deformation?
For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and temperature?

Chapter
1 18 -

Electrical Conduction
Ohm's Law:

V=IR

voltage drop (volts = J/C)

resistance (Ohms)
current (amps = C/s)
C = Coulomb

Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry

RA

Conductivity,

surface area
of current flow
current flow
path length

Chapter
2 18 -

Electrical Properties
Which will have the greater resistance?
2l

2 l
8l
R1

2
D 2
D

2

2D

R2

l
2D 2

l
R1

D2 8

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

Resistance depends on sample geometry and

size.
Chapter
3 18 -

Measurement of R

Chapter
4 18 -

Definitions
Further definitions

J=

<= another way to state Ohms law

J current density

current
I

surface area A

like a flux

electric field potential = V/

J = (V/ )
Electron flux

conductivity

voltage gradient

Chapter
5 18 -

Definitions
Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit
charge.Thedirectionofthefieldistakentobethedirection
of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The
electricfieldisradiallyoutwardfromapositivechargeand
radiallyintowardanegativepointcharge.

http://www.mysearch.org.uk/website1/html/479.Fieldlines.html

Chapter
6 18 -

Conductivity: Comparison
Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS
CERAMICS
conductors
-10
Silver
6.8 x 10 7
Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper
6.0 x 10 7
Concrete
10 -9
Iron
1.0 x 10 7
Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMERS
Polystyrene
Silicon
4 x 10 -4
Polyethylene
Germanium 2 x 10 0
GaAs
10 -6
semiconductors

<10 -14
10 -15-10-17
insulators

Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
7 18 -

Example: Conductivity Problem

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?
l 100 m
I = 2.5 A

Cu wire -

100 m

D 2
4
Solve to get

V
R

A I

< 1.5 V
2.5 A
6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

D > 1.87 mm
Chapter
8 18 -

Electron Conductivity
The magnitude of the conductivity
depends on the number of electrons
available to participate in the conduction
process
Not all electrons in every atom will
accelerate in the presence of an electric
field
It depends on the arrangement of electron
states or levels w.r.t energy and the
manners in which these states are
occupied by electrons.
Chapter
9 18 -

Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
1018 -

Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
1118 -

Band Structures in Solids at 0K

Femi
Energy

Outermostbandispartially
filledEx.Copperhasone
electronin4s
Overlapbetweenanempty
andfilledbandEx.
Magnesiumhasonetwo3s
electrons.Then3sand3p
bandsoverlap

Valencebandi.e.completelyfilledisseparated
fromanemptybandandanenergybandgaplies
betweenthem.Differencedependsonthe
magnitudeoftheenergygap.Insulators:gapis
relativelywide.Semiconductors:gapisnarrow

Chapter
1218 -

Conduction & Electron Transport

Metals (Conductors):

partly
filled
band

filled
band

filled states

- partially filled band

- empty band that
overlaps filled band

filled states

-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.

-- thermal energy
Partially filled band
Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energy
Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states.
band
empty
-- two types of band
GAP
band
structures for metals

Chapter
1318 -

filled
band

filled
band

Energy Band Structures:

Insulators & Semiconductors
Insulators:

Semiconductors:

-- wide band gap (> 2 eV)

-- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)
-- few electrons excited
-- more electrons excited
across band gap
across band gap
empty
Energy
Energy
empty
conduction
conduction
band
band

filled
valence
band
filled
band

GAP

filled states

filled states

GAP

filled
valence
band
filled
band
Chapter
1418 -

Conduction In Metals

For an electron to become free, it must be excited or promoted

into one of the empty and available energy states above Ef

Chapter
1518 -

Charge Carriers in Insulators and

Semiconductors
Adapted from Fig. 18.6(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Two types of electronic charge

carriers:
Free Electron
negative charge
in conduction band
Hole
positive charge
vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

Chapter
1618 -

Electron Mobility

Free Electrons accelerates when

electric field is applied.
The acceleration direction is
opposite to the applied field.
Free electrons should accelerate
as long as the field is applied!!
But! We know that the current
reaches a constant value the
v
instant that field applied.
Why?
Thus frictional forces exists,
which counter this acceleration
from the field.
Scatteringofelectronsby
Itistheresistanceto
imperfectionsinthecrystallattice
thepassageofan
electriccurrent
Parameters
Driftvelocity

mobility

Chapter
1718 -

EXAMPLE
Atroomtemperaturetheelectricalconductivityandthe
electronmobilityforcopperare6.0107(Wm)1and0.0030
m2/Vs,respectively.(a)Computethenumberoffree
electronspercubicmeterforcopperatroomtemperature.(b)
Whatisthenumberoffreeelectronspercopperatom?
Assumeadensityof8.9g/cm3.

Chapter
1818 -

Metals: Influence of Temperature and

Impurities on Resistivity
Presence of imperfections increases resistivity

(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Resistivity,

-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies
6
5
4

Cu

defo

2
1
0

These act to scatter

electrons so that they
take a less direct path.

.3
+3

N
at %

C
d
e
rm
d
i
t

-200

12
.
1
+

Cu

Ni
%
t
a

i
N
%
at
2
1
.
1

u
C

e
r
Pu

-100

T (C)

Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.)

Resistivity
increases with:
-- temperature
-- wt% impurity
-- %CW

= thermal
+ impurity
+ deformation
Chapter
1918 -

Estimating Conductivity
Question:

180
160
140
125
120
100
21 wt% Ni
80
60
0 10 20 30 40 50

Resistivity,
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Yield strength (MPa)

-- Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy

that has a yield strength of 125 MPa.

wt% Ni, (Concentration C)

Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

From step 1:
CNi = 21 wt% Ni

Adapted from Fig.

18.9, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

wt% Ni, (Concentration C)

8

30 x 10 Ohm m
1
3.3 x 10 6(Ohm m)1

Chapter
2018 -

What is a semiconductor?
Low resistivity => conductor
High resistivity => insulator
Intermediate resistivity => semiconductor
conductivity lies between that of conductors
and insulators
generally crystalline in structure for IC devices
In recent years, however, non-crystalline
semiconductors have become commercially very
important

polycrystalline amorphous crystalline

Chapter
2118 -

Semiconductor Materials

Chapter
2218 -

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
Group IVA materials
Compound semiconductors
III-V compounds

Ex: GaAs & InSb

II-VI compounds

Ex: CdS & ZnTe

The wider the electronegativity difference between

the elements the wider the energy gap.

Chapter
2318 -

Band Gap of Semiconductors

Material

Band Gap

Si

1.11

Ge

0.67

GaP

2.25

GaAs

1.42

InSb

0.17

CdS

2.4

ZnTe

2.26

Chapter
2418 -

Silicon
Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form
covalent bonds with four of its nearest neighbors.
When temperature goes up, electrons can become
free to move about the Si lattice.

Chapter
2518 -

Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of

Electron and Hole Migration
Concept of electrons and holes:
valence
electron

electron
hole
pair creation

Si atom

no applied
electric field

electron
hole
pair migration

+applied
electric field

Electrical Conductivity given by:

+
applied
electric field
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

# holes/m3

n e e p e h
# electrons/m3

hole mobility

electron mobility
Chapter
2618 -

Number of Charge Carriers

Intrinsic Conductivity
n e e p e h

for intrinsic semiconductor n = p =

ni
= ni|e|(e + h)

Ex: GaAs

10 6 ( m) 1
ni

e e h (1.6 x10 19 C)(0.85 0.45 m2 /V s)

For GaAs ni = 4.8 x 1024 m-3
For Si

ni = 1.3 x 1016 m-3

Chapter
2718 -

Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
Data for Pure Silicon:
-- increases with T
-- opposite to metals

ni e e h
E gap / kT

ni e
material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS

band gap (eV)

1.11
0.67
2.25
2.40

Selected values from Table 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Adapted from Fig. 18.16,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
2818 -

Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
ni e e h
E gap / kT

ni e
material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS

band gap (eV)

1.11
0.67
2.25
2.40

Selected values from Table 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
2918 -

Example
At room temperature the electrical conductivity of PbTe is
500 (-m)1, whereas the electron and hole mobilities are
0.16 and 0.075 m2/V-s, respectively. Compute the intrinsic
carrier concentration for PbTe at room temperature.

Chapter
3018 -

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction

Intrinsic:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)

Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n p

n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p)

p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)

Phosphorus atom
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

n e e

4+ 5+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs.

18.12(a) & 18.14(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

no applied
electric field

Boron atom
hole
conduction
electron

4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

valence
electron

4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Si atom

4+ 3+ 4+ 4+

no applied
electric field

p e h

Chapter
3118 -

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Ntype
(a) Withoutfield
(b) Withfield

Ptype
(a) Withoutfield
(b) Withfield

Chapter
3218 -

Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity

vs. Temperature

Data for Doped Silicon:

-- increases doping
-- reason: imperfection sites

-- extrinsic doping level:

1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P).
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out,
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons.
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic"
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic"

extrinsic

intrinsic

3
freeze-out

extrinsic conduction...

concentration (1021/m3)

Comparison: intrinsic vs

undoped

Conduction electron

lower the activation energy to

produce mobile electrons.

doped

0
0

200

400

600

T (K)

Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch

8e. (Fig. 18.17 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor
Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell
Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

Chapter
3318 -

Numerical Example
An extrinsic p-type silicon material is desired having a
room-temperature conductivity of 50 (ohm.m)-1. Specify an
acceptor impurity type that may be used as well as its
concentration in atom percent to yield these electrical
characteristics.

Chapter
3418 -

Summary of Charge Carriers

Chapter
3518 -

p-n Rectifying Junction

Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current).

Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.

+ p-type
+ +
+ +

-- No applied potential:
no net current flow.
-- Forward bias: carriers
flow through p-type and
n-type regions; holes and
electrons recombine at
p-n junction; current flows.
-- Reverse bias: carriers
flow away from p-n junction;
junction region depleted of
carriers; little current flow.

p-type

n-type

+ - n-type
++- - + -

+ p-type
+ +
+ +

n-type

Adapted from
Fig. 18.21
Callister &
Rethwisch
8e.

Chapter
3618 -

Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 18.22, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Fig. 18.23, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
3718 -

Properties of Diodes
Thetransconductancecurveonthepreviousslideischaracterizedbythefollowing
equation:

ID=IS(eVD/VT1)
Asdescribedinthelastslide,IDisthecurrentthroughthediode,ISisthesaturation
currentandVDistheappliedbiasingvoltage.
VTisthethermalequivalentvoltageandisapproximately26mVatroom
temperature.TheequationtofindVTatvarioustemperaturesis:
VT=kT

q
k=1.38x1023J/KT=temperatureinKelvinq=1.6x10 19C
istheemissioncoefficientforthediode.Itisdeterminedbythewaythediodeis
constructed.Itsomewhatvarieswithdiodecurrent.Forasilicondiodeisaround
2forlowcurrentsandgoesdowntoabout1athighercurrents
Chapter
3818 -

TheIdealDiode
Model

Diode Circuit Model

Thediodeisdesignedtoallowcurrenttoflowinonlyone
direction.Theperfectdiodewouldbeaperfectconductorin
onedirection(forwardbias)andaperfectinsulatorinthe
otherdirection(reversebias).Inmanysituations,usingthe
idealdiodeapproximationisacceptable.

Example:Assumethediodeinthecircuitbelowisideal.DeterminethevalueofI Dif
a)VA=5volts(forwardbias)andb)VA=5volts(reversebias)
a)WithVA>0thediodeisinforwardbiasandis
actinglikeaperfectconductorso:

RS=50

VA

+
_

ID

ID=VA/RS=5V/50=100mA
b)WithVA<0thediodeisinreversebiasandis
actinglikeaperfectinsulator,thereforenocurrent
canflowandID=0.
Chapter
3918 -

Diode
Circuit
Models
TheIdealDiodewith

This model is more accurate than the simple ideal

diode model because it includes the approximate
barrier potential voltage. Remember the barrier
potential voltage is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow.

BarrierPotential
+

Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include the barrier
potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value
of ID if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).

RS=50

VA

+
_

ID

With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is

acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL
equation to find ID:
0 = VA IDRS - V

ID = VA - V = 4.7 V = 94 mA
RS
50
Chapter
4018 -

Types of Diodes
PN Junction Diodes:

Are used to allow current to flow in one direction while blocking

current flow in the opposite direction. The pn junction diode is the
typical diode that has been used in the previous circuits.

Schematic Symbol for

a PN Junction Diode

Representative
Structure for a PN
Junction Diode
Are specifically designed to operate under reverse breakdown
conditions. These diodes have a very accurate and specific reverse
breakdown voltage.

Zener Diodes:

A
Schematic Symbol for
a Zener Diode

Chapter
4118 -

Types of Diodes
Light-Emitting Diodes (LED):
Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large bandgap so
movement of carriers across their depletion region emits photons of
light energy. Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher band gap energy emit
visible light. Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs because
they are extremely bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

representation indicate
emitted light.

Schematic Symbol for

a Light-Emitting
Diode

Chapter
4218 -

Types of Diodes
Photodiodes:

While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to received

light. They are constructed so their pn junction can be
exposed to the outside through a clear window or lens.
In Photoconductive mode the saturation current increases in
proportion to the intensity of the received light. This type of
diode is used in CD players.
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is exposed to a
certain wavelength of light, the diode generates voltage and
can be used as an energy source. This type of diode is used
in the production of solar power.

Schematic Symbols
for Photodiodes

Chapter
4318 -

PhotoVoltaic

SolarEnergy

Electrode
ReflectProofFilm
NTypeSemiconductor
PTypeSemiconductor
Load
Electrode

PhotoVoltaiccell

Chapter
4418 -

ElectricCurrent

ThesolarcelliscomposedofaPtypesemiconductorandanNtypesemiconductor.Solar
lighthittingthecellproducestwotypesofelectrons,negativelyandpositivelycharged
electronsinthesemiconductors.
Negativelycharged()electronsgatheraroundtheNtypesemiconductorwhilepositively
charged(+)electronsgatheraroundthePtypesemiconductor.Whenyouconnectloads
suchasalightbulb,electriccurrentflowsbetweenthetwoelectrodes.

PhotoVoltaic

Direction of current inside PV cell

InsidecurrentofPVcelllookslike
Reversedirection.Why?

BySolarEnergy,currentispumpedupfrom
NpoletoPpole.
Ingeneration,currentappearsreverse.Itis
thesameasforbattery.

N
P
Currentappears
tobeinthe
reversedirection?

Looks
like
reverse

N
Chapter
4518 -

Photovoltaic
Voltage and Current of PV cell ( I-V Curve )
P
A
(A)

N
Short Circuit

High insolation
Current(I)

Voltage
Voltageon
onnormal
normaloperation
operationpoint
point
0.5V
0.5V(in
(incase
caseofofSilicon
SiliconPV)
PV)
Current
Currentdepend
dependon
on
--Intensity
Intensityof
ofinsolation
insolation
--Size
Sizeof
ofcell
cell
Normal operation point
(Maximum Power point)
P

Low insolation

V
IxV=W
(V)
Voltage(V)

N
Open Circuit

about 0.5V (Silicon)

Chapter
4618 -

PhotoVoltaic
I / V curve and P-Max control
To obtain maximum power, current control
(or voltage control) is very important.

V
(A)

N
P1
I/V curve

Ipmax

Power conditioner (mentioned later) will

adjusts to be most suitable voltage and
PMAX current automatically.

Current(I)

PP-Max
Maxcontrol
control

IxV=W

Power curve
P2
(V)

Voltage(V)

Vpmax

Chapter
4718 -

PhotoVoltaic

Estimate obtained power by I / V curve

A

R 0.05()
(A)

12

If the load has 0.05 ohm resistance,

cross point of resistance character and
PV-Character will be following point.
Then power is 10x0.5=5 W

PV character
( I/V curve )

10

R 0.05()

Current(I)

8
6
4
sta
i
s
Re

2
0

0.1

0.2

Ohms law

ter
c
a
r
ha
c
e
nc

V
I
R

I V / 0.05
0.3
0.4
Voltage(V)

0.5

0.6

(V)
Chapter
4818 -

PhotoVoltaic
Temperature and efficiency
When module temperature rises up, efficiency decreases.
The module must be cooled by natural ventilation, etc.

Crystalline cell
0.4

2%
down
Efficiency (%)

0.5 (
%/de
g)

Amorphous cell
0.25 (%/deg)

Typical
(25C)
Module Temperature (deg.C)

Summer time
on roof top
(65C)
Chapter
4918 -

PhotoVoltaic

Types and Conversion Efficiency of Solar Cell

Conversion
Conversion Efficiency
Efficiency of
of Module
Module

Crystalline
Crystalline
Silicon
Silicon
Semiconductor
Semiconductor

Single
Single crystal
crystal

10
10 -- 17%
17%

Poly
Poly crystalline
crystalline

10
10 -- 13%
13%

Amorphous
Amorphous

77 -- 10%
10%

Non-crystalline
Non-crystalline
Solar
Solar
Cell
Cell

Compound
Compound
Semiconductor
Semiconductor

Organic
Organic
Semiconductor
Semiconductor

Conversion Efficiency =

Gallium
Gallium Arsenide
Arsenide (GaAs)
(GaAs)

18
18 -- 30%
30%

Dye-sensitized
Dye-sensitized Type
Type

77 -- 8%
8%

Organic
Organic Thin
Thin Layer
Layer Type
Type

22 -- 3%
3%

Electric Energy Output

Energy of Insolation on cell

100%

Chapter
5018 -

PhotoVoltaic
Crystal cell (Single crystal and Poly crystalline Silicon)
Singlecrystal

Formed by melting high purity silicon

like as Integrated Circuit

Polycrystalline

For mass production, cell is sliced from

roughly crystallized ingot.
Chapter 18 -

51

 Surface of PV cell

PhotoVoltaic

Example of Poly Crystalline PV

Aluminum Electrode
(Silver colored wire)
To avoid shading,
electrode is very fine.
Anti reflection film
(Blue colored film)

Front Surface
(N-Type side)
Back surface is Ptype.
All back surface is
aluminum electrode
with full reflection.
Chapter
5218 -

PhotoVoltaic
PV Module (Single crystal, Poly crystalline Silicon)
Single crystal

Poly crystalline
120W
(25.7V
4.7A) ,

128W
(26.5V ,
4.8A)

1200mm
3.93ft

1200mm
(3.93ft)

800mm 2.62ft
Efficiency is higher

Same size

800mm (2.62ft)
Efficiency is lower
Chapter
5318 -

Hierarchy of PV
Cell
Module
Array

Volt
0.5V
20-30V
200-300V

PhotoVoltaic
Ampere
5-6A
5-6A
50A-200A

Watt
2-3W
100-200W
10-50kW

Size
about 10cm
about 1m
about 30m

Array
10 - 50 kW

Module,Panel
100 - 200 W

Cell
23W

6x9=54 (cells)

100-300 (modules)

Chapter
5418 -

PhotoVoltaic

Roughly size of PV Power Station.

How much PV can we install in this conference room?

Please
remember

2
11kw
kwPV
PVneed
need10
10mm2

20m(66feet)

(108 feet2)

Conference
Room
(We are now)

Our room has about 200 m2

(2,178 feet2)
We can install about
20 kW PV in this room

10m(33feet)
Chapter
5518 -

PhotoVoltaic
Roof top of residence ( Grid connected )
Owner can sell excess
power to power utility.

Most popular installation style in

Japan.
(Almost 85% PV in Japan )

Chapter
5618 -

PhotoVoltaic

Distant and independent power supply ( Off grid )

Advertising sign beside highway

Relay station on top of mountain
Chapter
5718 -

Junction Transistor

Fig. 18.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
5818 -

MOSFET Transistor
Integrated Circuit Device

Fig. 18.26, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.

MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor)

Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. 50 nm line width
~ 1,000,000,000 components on chip
chips formed one layer at a time

Chapter
5918 -

Dielectric Behavior
Dielectric material is nonconducting and it exhibit an
electric dipole. i.e. separation
between a positive and negative
electric charge

Electric dipole moment: a vector directed from q to +q, p=qd

When a field is applied (vector),

a force or torque will come to
bear on an electric dipole to
orient it with the field. Known
as Polarization
Chapter
6018 -

Capacitance

When a voltage is applied across a

capacitor, one plate becomes positively
charged, the other negatively charged.
The capacitance C is related to the
quantity of charge stored on either plate
Q by:

C=Q/V

If a vacuum exists between the two

plates; C can be computed from

If a dielectric material is inserted into the

region within the plates then:

Chapter
6118 -

Dielectric Displacement

The surface charge density D in case of

vacuum is:

If a dielectric material is inserted into the

region within the plates then:

=+P
(-1)

Chapter
6218 -

Numerical Problems
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area
of 6.45x10-3 m (0.08 in) across which a potential
of 10 V is applied. If a material having a dielectric
constant of 6.0 is positioned within the region
between the plates, compute the following:
(a) The capacitance
(b) The magnitude of the charge stored on each
plate
The dielectric displacement D
The polarization.

Chapter
6318 -

Ferroelectric Ceramics
Experience spontaneous polarization
BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below
its Curie temperature (120C)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
6418 -

Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
application of stress induces voltage
application of voltage induces dimensional change

stress-free

with applied
stress

Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.36 from Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, p.482, Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.)
Chapter
6518 -

Summary
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent

Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...

-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states

For metals, resistivity is increased by

-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation

For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by

-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]

Other electrical characteristics

-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity

Chapter
6618 -