ch20, 21, 24

METAL MACHINING
Chapters 20, 21, and 24 Please

focus only on Turning, Drilling,
Milling, and Grinding machining
processes
2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common feature of
which is removal of material from a starting work part
so the remaining part has the desired geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
The family tree

of material
removal
processes
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to
form a chip, and as chip is removed, new surface is exposed:
(a) positive and (b) negative rake tools
Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined

Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages of Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted material
At least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes longer to
shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes
Machining in the Manufacturing

Sequence
Generally performed after other basic manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the
starting work part
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Drilling
Used to create a round
hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill bit)
with two cutting edges
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling (left) and face milling
Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools
Cutting Tools
(a) Singlepoint tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of
tools with multiple cutting edges
Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original
work surface
For certain operations (e.g., turning), material
removal rate RMR can be computed as
RMR = v f d
Cutting Conditions in Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning operation
Turning Operation
Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Operations Related to Turning

(a) Facing, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning
More Operations Related to

Turning
(d) Form turning, (e) chamfering, (f) cutoff
More Operations Related to

Turning
(g) Threading, (h) boring, (i) drilling
Engine Lathe
Diagram of an
engine lathe
showing its
principal
components
and motions
Two Forms of Milling

(a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling
Peripheral Milling vs.

Face Milling
Peripheral milling
Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
Face milling
Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
Types of Peripheral Milling

(a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (e) straddle
milling, and (e) form milling
Types of Face Milling

(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, and
(c) end milling
Types of Face Milling

(d) Profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface
contouring
Face Milling
High speed face
milling operation
using indexable
inserts (photo
courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.)
CNC Machining Center

(Photo
courtesy of
Cincinnati
Milacron)
CNC Turning Center - Industrial

Robot to Load and Unload Parts
(Photo
courtesy
of
Cincinnati
Milacron)
Surface Grinder
Surface grinder
with horizontal
spindle and
reciprocating
worktable (most
common grinder
type)
Grinding Wheel Specification
Three Types of Grain Action

Cutting - grit projects far enough into surface to form
a chip - material is removed
Plowing - grit projects into work, but not far enough to
cut - surface is deformed and energy is consumed
But no material is removed
Rubbing - grit contacts surface but only rubbing
friction occurs, which consumes energy
But no material is removed
Grain Actions in Grinding

Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting,
(b) plowing, and (c) rubbing
Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts

In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on a part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting work part
Some material remains for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tool
A powerdriven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds work part
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
The term also applies to machines that perform
metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately
tr
o
c
Chip Thickness Ratio
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the

chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio is always less than 1.0
rta
c
o
s
n
1in
Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal

model, the shear plane angle can be determined
as:
where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle
Shear Strain in Chip Formation

(a) Chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding
relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear
strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model
= tan( - ) + cot
where = shear strain, = shear plane angle,
and = rake angle of cutting tool
Actual Chip Formation

More realistic view
of chip formation,
showing shear zone
rather than shear
plane
Also shown is the
secondary shear
zone resulting from
toolchip friction
Four Basic Types of Chip in

Machining
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
Serrated chip
Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of
cut
High toolchip friction
Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials

High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low toolchip friction
Continuous with BUE

Ductile materials
Lowtomedium cutting
speeds
Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous - saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear strain
then low shear strain
Associated with difficult-tomachine metals at high
cutting speeds
Forces Acting on Chip

(a) Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
(b) Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
ta
n
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
tssoin
w
A
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane
Fs
As
where As = area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength S of work material

during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be directly
measured
Forces acting on
the tool that can be
measured: Cutting
force Fc and
Thrust force Ft
Forces in Metal Cutting

Equations to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
452
The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation

can occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle that minimizes energy
Derived by Eugene Merchant

Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining
452
What the Merchant Equation

Tells Us
To increase shear plane angle

Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or reduce the coefficient
of friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane

Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force, cutting forces, power,
and temperature
Power and Energy Relationships

A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed
from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v =
cutting speed
F
v
c
H
P
c
3,0

In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ftlb/min by
33,000)
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
P
H
P
c
c
H
P
gE
gE
Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is

given by
or
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools 90%
Unit Power in Machining

Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut
Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc
PU = or
RMR
HPc
HPu =
RMR
where RMR = material removal rate
P
F
v
c
c
U
=
P
=
uR
tow
M
R
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
where Units for specific energy are typically

Nm/mm3 or J/mm3 (inlb/in3)
Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is
converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
toolchip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperatures are

Important
High cutting temperatures result in the following:
Reduce tool life
Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator
Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to
thermal expansion of work material
.o
0
3
tC
v
.T
0
4
U
Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from

dimensional analysis using experimental data for
various work materials
where T = temperature rise at toolchip interface; U =

specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of work material
Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the toolchip
thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speedtemperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured toolchip interface temperature,
and v = cutting speed

ch20, 21, 24

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METAL MACHINING

Chapters 20, 21, and 24 Please

Material Removal Processes

The family tree

Why Machining is Important

Variety of work materials can be machined

Machining in the Manufacturing

Cutting Tool Classification

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Cutting Conditions in Turning

Operations Related to Turning

More Operations Related to

More Operations Related to

Two Forms of Milling

Peripheral Milling vs.

Types of Peripheral Milling

Types of Face Milling

Types of Face Milling

CNC Machining Center

CNC Turning Center - Industrial

Grinding Wheel Specification

Three Types of Grain Action

Grain Actions in Grinding

Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Chip Thickness Ratio

where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the

Determining Shear Plane Angle

Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal

where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle

Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Actual Chip Formation

Four Basic Types of Chip in

Ductile work materials

Continuous with BUE

Forces Acting on Chip

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

Shear stress acting along the shear plane

where As = area of the shear plane

Shear stress = shear strength S of work material

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

Forces in Metal Cutting

The Merchant Equation

Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation

Derived by Eugene Merchant

What the Merchant Equation

To increase shear plane angle

Effect of Higher Shear Plane

Power and Energy Relationships

Power and Energy Relationships

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Unit Power in Machining

where RMR = material removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

where Units for specific energy are typically

Cutting Temperatures are

Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from

where T = temperature rise at toolchip interface; U =

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