Cells

EUKARYOTES

PROCARYOTES

they have a true nucleus

have no true nucleus

Nucleus, which houses

DNA, is contained within a
membrane and separated
from other cellular
structures.

DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not

separated from the rest of the
cell but coiled up in a region
called the nucleoid.

prokaryotes
includebacteria

Eukaryotes include animals,

plants, fungi etc.

eukaryotic cells are more

complex and much larger
than prokaryotic cells

prokaryotic cells are about 10

times smaller in diameter than
eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotes grow and

reproduce through a
process calledmitosis

Most prokaryotes reproduce

through a process calledbinary
fission

Most cellular respiration

reactions take place within
themitochondria.

In prokaryotes, they occur in

the cytoplasm and/or within
the cell membrane.

Eukaryotic Cells and Prokaryotic Cells

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms get the energy they need
to grow and maintain normal cellular function through
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration has three main stages:
glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport.
Eukaryotes use the same genetic code and metabolic processes as
prokaryotes.

Animal Cell

Bacteria

Cell wall of microorganisms

Cell wall
The murein layer is about 10-80 nm thick, made
of petidoglycan exists in one form or other in
almost all the species.
The space below the murien
layer called
periplasmic space, is about 8 nm thick and often
contains enzymes
The inner layer called the plasma or cytoplasmic
membrane is about 8 nm is a double layer made
of phospholipids and some proteins and metal ions
The cell interior, called the cytoplasm, is an
aqueous solution of salts,
amino acids and
biopolymers including proteins, enzymes, RNA and
DNA.
It is necessary to rupture the cell to release the

Cell Disruption
Cells for
disruptions

Thermolys
is

For
products
of stable
of heat
shock

Osmotic
shock

Cells in
pure water
(double
amt) , cells
swells and
disrupts

Mechanic
al
Disruption
s

Chemical
and
Enzymatic
methods

Physical
Methods

Ultrasonic
ation

Ultrasound
waves of
frequency .
20kHz
ruptures the
cells

Alkali
treatment

Detergent
solubilizat
ion

Cell wall
permeabil
ization

Lipid
solubilization
by organic
solvents

Enzyme
digestion

Lytic
enzyme to
the cell
suspension

Bead Mill
disruption

High
prressure
homogeniz
er

Disruption of microbial cell

Bead mill disruption

USING GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISMS
FOR CHEMICAL
PRODUCTION

DEFINITION
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Agenetically modified organism (GMO)orgeneticallyengineeredorganism

(GEO)isanorganismwhosegenetic material hasbeenalteredusinggenetic
engineeringtechniques.
Thesetechniques,generallyknownasrecombinant DNA technology,use
DNAmoleculesfromdifferentsources,whicharecombinedintoonemoleculeto
create a new set of genes.
ThisDNAisthentransferredintoanorganism,givingitmodifiedornovelgenes.
Transgenic organisms,asubsetofGMOs,areorganismswhichhaveinserted
DNAthatoriginatedinadifferentspecies.

The Need of GMO

WHY DO WE NEED GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS?
Cellscanbeengineeredtomakehighlevelsofnaturallyoccurringproteins.
Syntheticgenescanbecreatedwhichencodefortotallynewproteins.
Engineeringtheproteinsinvolvesthemodificationofexistingproteinstoimprove
theirstability,substrateandinhibitoraffinityandspecificity,andcatalyticrate.
GMOsareusedinbiologicalandmedicalresearch,productionofpharmaceutical
drugs,experimentalmedicine(e.g.genetherapy),andagriculture(e.g.goldenrice).
o Geneticallymodifiedbacteriaareusedtoproduceinsulintotreatdiabetes.
Similarbacteriahavebeenusedtoproduceclottingfactorsto
treathaemophilia,andhumangrowthhormonetotreatvariousforms
ofdwarfism.
o Transgenicplantshavebeenengineeredtopossessseveraldesirabletraits,such
asresistancetopests,herbicides,orharshenvironmentalconditions,improved
productshelflife,andincreasednutritionalvalue.
o Genetherapy,usesgeneticallymodifiedvirusestodelivergenesthatcancure
diseaseintohumancells.

GENETIC MATERIAL: DNA & RNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stores and preserves genetic information.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) plays a central role in protein synthesis.
Both DNA and RNA are large polymers made of their corresponding
nucleotides.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA and also serve as
molecules to store energy and reducing power.
A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase(nitrogenous base), a fivecarbon sugar (eitherriboseor2'-deoxyribose), and onephosphategroup.
The phosphate groups formbondswith either the 2, 3, or 5-carbon of
the sugar, with the 5-carbon site most common.
Cyclic nucleotidesform when the phosphate group is bound to two of the
sugar'shydroxyl groups.
Ribonucleotidesare nucleotides where the sugar isribose,
anddeoxyribonucleotidescontain the sugardeoxyribose.
Nucleotides can contain either apurineor apyrimidine base.
InDNA, the purine bases areadenineandguanine, while the pyrimidines
arethymineandcytosine.
RNAusesuracilin place of thymine.
Adenine always pairs with thymine by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine

DNA


Genetic
Code
Theblueprintofanylivingcellisthegeneticcode.
Thecodeismadeupofthree-letterwords(codons)withanalphabetof4
letters.
64wordsarepossible,butmanyofthesewordsareredundant.
Thecodeisdegenerateinthatmorethanonecodoncanspecifyaparticular
aminoacid
o Example-UCU,UCC,UCA,ANDUCGallspecifyserine
3codings,UAA,UAG,ANDUGA,arecallednonsensecodonsinthatthey
dontencodenormallyforaminoacids.Thesecodonsactasstoppointsin
translationandareencodedattheendofeachgene.
Whenthesewords(codons)areputintoasequence,theycanmakea
sentence,i.e.,agene,whichwhenproperlytranscribedandtranslatedisa
protein.
Thegeneticcodeisessentiallyuniversal,althoughsomeexceptionsexist
(particularlyinthemitochondriaandforinclusionforrareaminoacids).
Thisessentialuniversalitygreatlyfacilitatesgeneticengineering.

DNA Replication

Gene Expression
Transcription is the first step leading to gene expression. Its the
process of creating a complimentary RNA copy of a sequence DNA.
In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by transcription is
decoded by the ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain,
or polypeptide, that will later fold into an active protein.

Translation

GENETIC RECOMBINATION

Geneticrecombinationisaprocessthatbringsgeneticelementsfromtwo
differentgenomesintooneunit,resultinginnewgenotypesintheabsenceof
mutations.
The3mainmechanismsforgenetransferaretransformation,transduction,and
conjugation.
TransformationisaprocessinwhichfreeDNAistakenupbyacell.
TransductionisaprocessinwhichDNAistransferredbyabacteriophage.
AndconjugationisDNAtransferbetweenintactcellsthatareindirectcontact
withoneanother.
Allthe3processesaboverepresentformsofgenetransferfromonecellto
another.

GENETICALLY ENGINEERING CELLS

GeneticengineeringmakesuseofrecombinantDNAtechniques,
theabilitytoisolategenesfromoneorganismandrecombinethe
isolatedgenewithotherDNAthatcanbepropagatedinasimilaror
unrelatedhost.

Examples

NORMAL RICE

GOLDEN RICE

Examples

ZEBRA FISH

GLOFISHES