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Lecture 9—
Comparative Health Care Systems
Importance of the Comparative Health Care
Systems
• An understanding of the diversity of approaches that exist to
meet health care needs
• An understanding of the variety of factors that have shaped the
development of these approaches
• An understanding of the norms, values, cultural and national
outlook of those countries
Situational-Historical
• specific political events
Factors
• major economic
changes • the prevalence of social norms
• significant and values
technological
development
Physical Cultural
Environmental Factors Health Care System
Factors
Structural Factors
Types of Systems
Role of Fee-for- Socialized Decentralize Socialist
Government Service Medicine d National Medicine
Health
Regulation limited direct indirect direct
Payments to limited direct indirect direct
Providers
Ownership of private private and private and public
Facilities and public public public
• Types of convergence:
– controlling costs and increasing efficiency and effectiveness
– reducing inequalities
– initiatives to promote health
– primary health care
– patient choice and voice
– linkage between health and social services
– developing information systems to monitor and measure the activities and
outcomes of health care
Creative and Critical Thinking
創意思考與批判思考
Lecture 6
Deductive Reasoning (II)
The ambiguity of 「可能」
• 「可能」一詞是歧義的。至少可解作:
1. Possible 可能 ( 邏輯上 ) (logical possibility)
2. Probable 概然 ( 經驗上 ) (empirical probability)
• 一般人說:我不買六合彩,因為根本沒有可
能中。
其實是:有中六合彩的可能性 ( 邏輯上 ) ,
但 ( 經驗上 ) 其概然性很低 (= 機會
很微 ) 。
What strong arguments are
• A strong ( 強 ) argument:
Invalid ( 不對確 )
Given that the premise(s) is(are) true, it is very
likely ( 很可能 ) that the conclusion is true.
E.g.
99.9% 的 CCT 學生都是勤奮的。
小丙是 CCT 學生。
所以,小丙是勤奮的。
Peter bought one ticket in a fair lottery with ten million
tickets.
So Peter is not going to win the lottery.
What strong arguments are
• 強的論證:
• 前提對結論不提供絕對/完全/百分百的
支持。
• 前提只在某程度上 (>50% 但 <100%) 支持
著結論。
Deductive Argument ( 演繹論
證)
• A deductive argument is an argument in which the conclusion is
claimed to be justified by (or to follow from) the premise(s) with
(logical) necessity( 必然性 ), or
– 這是一個三角形,所以它的內角和必定是 180 度。
– All whales are mammals. All mammals are animals. Hence, all
whales must be animals.
– Alan is a father. Therefore, it is necessary that Alan is a
male.
Please note that:
• Deductive arguments ≠ valid arguments
Inductive Argument ( 歸納論證 )
• An inductive argument is an argument in which the conclusion is
claimed to be justified by (or to follow from) the premise(s) with a
certain degree of probability ( 概然性 ), namely > 0.5, or
Inductive ( 歸納 ):
Deductive ( 演繹的 ):
1. The conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises with (logical)
necessity ( 必然性 ).
2. This necessity is not a matter of degree. (logical absolute)
Inductive ( 歸納的 ):
1. The conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises only with a
certain degree of probability ( 概然性 ).
2. This probability comes as a matter of degree.
Key Differences between Deductive and
Inductive Arguments
• The claimer intends to show:
Deductive Inductive
If all the premises are true, then the If all the premises are true, then the
conclusion must be true ( 必然真 ). conclusion is probably true ( 大概真 ),
i.e., more likely to be true than false.
• E.g., "if you are pretty, I will love you" is false when "you
are pretty" is true and "I love you" is false, otherwise it is
true.
A Characteristic of Conditional
Statement
Note that:
"If p, then q" ≠ "If not-p, then not-q" .
• E.g., "If you are pretty, then I will love you" ≠ "If you are not
pretty, then I will not love you".
• P 是 Q 的充分條件 (sufficient
condition):
• 如果 P 出現,那麼 Q 必然 (一定/肯
定)也出現。
• "P" 、 "Q" 可指涉性質 (properties) 或事
態 (states of affairs)
Basic concepts:
Sufficient Condition 充分條件
In a conditional statement "If p then q":