Consulting Process Models

Project Complexity and Consulting Competence

Process Knowhow

Systemic Loop
(Knigswieser &
Hillebrand)

Consulting Process (Lippitt & Lippitt) /

Flawless Consulting (Block)

Problem Solving Model (Schein)

Simple Projects

More Complex Projects

Complexity

Large-scale OD Projects

Systemic
Consulting

Process
Moderation

Problem Solving

A Model of the stages of Problem Solving (Schein)

Two cycles of activity
4
Action Planning

The fist cycle consists of:

1. Problem formulation
2. Producing proposals for solution
3. Forecasting the consequences of
solutions proposed or testing
solutions and evaluating them
conceptually before taking action

1
Problem
Formulation

Felt
Need
6
Evaluating
Outcomes

3
Forecasting
consequences,
testing proposals

2
Producing
Proposals
for Solution

5
Taking
Action
Steps

Schein, E. H. (1988). Process Consultation. Vol. 1 (Rev. Ed.). Reading, Ma.: Addison-Wesley.

The second cycle involves:

4. Action planning
5. Action steps; and
6. Evaluation of outcomes; often
leading back into the fist cycle of
problem identification

The Consulting Process (Lippitt & Lippitt)

Engaging in initial
contact and entry
1.
2.
3.

Work Focus 1
Making First Contact
The potential client
The potential
consultant
A third party

Work Focus 2
Helping Identify & Clarify
the need for change (process
of exploration)

Work Focus 3
Exploring the readiness for
change effort:
Consultant explores time,
energy, commitment of client
system
Client explores capability,
sensitivity, credibility of the
potential consultant
Work Focus 4
Exploring the potential for
working together:
Consultant may propose a
period of testing for
compatibility before making
mutual commitments for
long-term working
relationship

Formul
ating a
contract
and
establis
hing aWork Focus 5
helping
Identifying desired
relation
outcomes
To achieve a wider
ship

Identify
ing
proble
ms
through
Work Focus 8
diagnos
Using force-field
tic
diagnosis:
analysisIdentify the forces that

perspective on possible
goals and desirable
outcomes

Work Focus 6
Determining who
should do what
Determine who the
client system is
Determine if there is a
difference between the
client system and the
office who pays the
bills

Work Focus 7
Clarifying time
perspective and
accountability
Agreement about
milestones at which
progress of the
working relationship
will be reviewed

impede movement to the

current goals and forces
that facilitate such
movement

Setting goals and

planning for action
Work Focus 9
Projecting Goals
To set meaningful goals,
both the consultant and
the client must have a
clear picture of a
preferred and feasible
future

Work Focus 10
Planning for action
and involvement
Devise a sequence of
steps towards each
goal (identifying
specifically what
should be done)

Comple
ting the
Taking
contract
action
(contin
and
uity,
cycling
support
Work Focus 11
Work Focus 14
feedbac
, & Designing continuity
Taking
successful
k
terminasupports:
action:
Helping people develop tion) Develop a plan for a
the skills necessary to
increase their chances of
achieving success in the
actions they take
Support celebrations of
small successes

Work Focus 12
Evaluating and guiding
feedback:
Elicit feedback about
progress and involve
necessary people in the
assessment of this
feedback

Work Focus 13
Revising action and
mobilizing additional
resources:
Use feedback to reexamine goals, revise
action strategies, etc.

Lippitt, G., & Lippitt, R. (1986). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company

continuing review of
events, including a wide
circle of personnel from
the client system

Work Focus 15
Establishing termination
plans:
Training an insider to
take over the functions
initiated
Termination celebration
for the final product of a
collaborative effort
Periodic maintenance
plan

Flawless Consulting (Block)

Phase 1. Entry and Contracting

Matching Wants and Offers

Phase 2. Discovery and Dialogue

Symptom or underlying problem

Phase 3. Feedback and Decision to Act

the report and presentation

Phase 4. Engagement and Implementation

the main events

Phase 5. Extension, Recycle, or Termination

Block, P. H. 2000. Flawless consulting (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

The Systemic Process Consulting Loop (Knigswieser &

Hillebrand)

Knigswieser, R., Hillebrand, M. (2005): Systemic Consultancy in Organizations. Concepts Tools Innovations. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer.

Consultant Roles

Eight Roles of a Consultant (Lippitt & Lippitt)

1. Objective Observer. In this role the consultant does not express personal beliefs or ideas and does not assume responsibility for
the work or the result of that work. Instead, the consultant observes the clients behavior and provides feedback; the client alone
is responsible for the direction that is ultimately chosen.
2. Process Counselor. This role consists of observing the clients problem-solving processes and offering suggestions for
improvement. The consultant and the client jointly diagnose the clients process, and the consultant assists the client in
acquiring whatever skills are necessary to continue diagnosing the process.
3. Fact Finder. In this role the consultant serves as a researcher, collecting and interpreting information in areas of importance to
the client. Fact finding enables the consultant to develop an understanding of the clients processes and performance; as a result
of the insights gained, the consultant and the client can evaluate the effectiveness of a change process in terms of solving the
clients problem.
4. Identifier of Alternatives and Linker to Resources. The consultant identifies alternative solutions to a problem; establishes
criteria for evaluating each alternative; determines the likely consequences of each alternative; and then links the client with
resources that may be able to help in solving the problem. However, the consultant does not assist in selecting the final solution.
5. Joint Problem Solver. The consultant works actively with the client to identify and solve the problem at hand, often taking a
major role in defining the results. The consultant also may act as a third-party mediator when conflict arises during the problemsolving process.
6. Trainer/Educator. The consultant provides instruction, information, or other kinds of directed learning opportunities for the
client. As a trainer/educator, the consultant must be able to assess training needs, write learning objectives, design learning
experiences and educational events, employ a range of educational techniques and media, and function as a group facilitator.
7. Information Specialist. The consultant serves as content expert for the client, often defining right and wrong approaches to
a problem. The client is primarily responsible for defining the problem and the objectives of the consultation, and the consultant
plays a directive role until the client is comfortable with the approach that has been recommended.
8. Advocate. The consultant consciously strives to have the client move in a direction desired by the consultant. In the most
directive of the eight roles, the consultant uses power and influence to impose his or her ideas and values about either content or
process issues. As a content advocate, the consultant tries to influence the clients choice of goals and means; as a process
advocate, the consultant tries to influence the methodology underlying the clients problem-solving behavior.
Lippitt, G., & Lippitt, R. (1986). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company

Three Roles of a Consultant (Schein)

1. Expert Role.
The manager elects to play an inactive role
Decisions on how to proceed are made by the consultant, on the basis of his or her expert judgment
Information needed for problem analysis is gathered by the consultant
Technical control rests with the consultant
Collaboration is not required
Two-way communication is limited
The consultant plans and implements the main events
The managers role is to judge and evaluate after the fact
The consultants goal is to solve the immediate problem
2. Pair-of-Hands Role.
The consultant takes a passive role
Decisions on how to proceed are made by the manager
The manager selects methods for data collection and analysis
Control rests with the manager
Collaboration is not really necessary
Two-way communication is limited
The manager specifies change procedures for the consultant to implement
The managers role is to judge and evaluate from a close distance
The consultants goal is to make the system more effective by the application of specialized knowledge
3. Collaborative Role.
The consultant and the manager work to become interdependent
Decision making is bilateral
Data collection and analysis are joint efforts
Control issues become matters for discussion and negotiation
Control issues become matters for discussion and negotiation
Communication is two-way
Implementation responsibilities are determined by discussion and agreement
The consultants goal is to solve problems so they stay solved