Organizational Behavior

Management:
What it is and how to do it

John Austin, Nicole Gravina, & Caio Miguel

Western Michigan University

Email contact: John.Austin@wmich.edu

 Overview
• What is OBM?
• Overview of the 6-step OBM process
• Details for each step

• Rules for today: No rules…ask questions

when more detail is needed.
• Breaks: About every hour…
 What is OBM? Terms
• OBM = Organizational Behavior
Management
• PM = Performance Management

I use the two terms interchangeably

 What is OBM? Definition
OBM is the use of behavior analysis principles to
help an organization and its members better
achieve its goals and mission.
Behavior Analysis principles are techniques
derived from the science of human behavior, as
first defined by Skinner (1953).
-These principles and techniques include the
use of stimulus control and the basic
contingencies (pos/neg reinforcement; pos/neg
punishment), as well as more advanced
principles and techniques such as motivative
operations and verbal behavior.
 How to “Do” OBM
1. Identify the mission (job, dept., and/or org.)
2. Identify pinpoints
3. Develop a measurement system
• Collect baseline data
4. Diagnose the problem
5. Develop, communicate, and implement a
solution
6. Evaluate the results
 More Terms…
• Behavior: Anything we say, do, or think. To
measure behavior, you must see it happening.
• Results: The products of behavior. You can
measure results after the fact. They are what is
left over after the behavior occurs.
• Accomplishments: Results that add value to
the organization. Accomplishments have more
worth than cost.
– Examples?
 Step 1: The Mission
• In many cases, the mission of the organization,
department, or job is decided before you enter.
• The mission is the most important result produced by
the job, department, or organization.
• You can confirm/develop the mission in 4 steps:
1. Identify all results
2. Identify the most important result – this is the mission.
3. Check the mission against the other important results to make
sure they are secondary.
4. Check the mission using the ACORN test; revise if necessary.
The Mission Should be Aligned Across Levels of
the Organization

Organization-
Level Mission

Department-Level Missions

Job-Level Missions
 The ACORN Test
Ask these questions to determine the adequacy of the
mission:
• A = accomplishment
– Is the mission an accomplishment (result, not behavior)?
• C = control
– Is reaching the mission under the performers‟ control?
• O = overall objective
– If the mission were reached, would anything else be expected of
the performers?
• R = reconcilable
– Does completing the mission put any performers at odds with
each other? (Are there conflicting missions?)
• N = numbers
– Is progress on the mission measurable?
Example…
 Step 2: Pinpointing
• Pinpoints are the targets of the
intervention.
• Pinpoints should add value to the
organization through:
– Contributing to the mission of the job,
department, and organization
– Producing to the financial well-being of the
organization
– Otherwise contributing to organizational
survival.
 Pinpointing
• All pinpoints must be:
– A result or behavior (results are preferred)
– Measurable and observable
– Under the performer’s control
– Well defined, so that 2 independent observers
can agree on occurrence and nonoccurence
– Active (pass the dead person’s test)
– In need of improvement (large PIP)
– Valuable
 Behavior and Related Results
Behavior (must see it Result (can measure after
happening) the fact)
Cleaning ???
??? Bills paid on time
Walking ???
??? Satisfied customers

-Always pinpoint behaviors

and results, but pinpoint
results first.
 Quiz: Results, behavior, or non-
behavior?

• Turning a bolt B R NB
• Not paying attention B R NB
• Communicating effectively B R NB
• Cutting toward the body B R NB
• Holding the handrail B R NB
• Wet floors B R NB
• Unbalanced body position B R NB
 Pinpointing Practice
Find the flaw(s) in these pinpoints:
1. Courteous
2. Zero injuries (Zero defects)
3. Great musician
4. Number of napkins handed to customers
Quiz: Are these good pinpoints?

hard working Y N
courteous Y N
energetic Y N
creative Y N
helpful Y N
famous Y N
great b-ball player Y N
 The PIP: Determining Value and
Need for Improvement
PIP = Potential for improving performance
• Calculated through a simple ratio:
– Worth of best performance over worth of typical
(target) performance.
• Worth = Value of Accomplishment/Cost of
Behavior to get it = A/B
• So, PIP = Wex/Wtyp
• Emp A (ex) = 100 parts per minute
• Emp B (typ) = 50 parts per minute
– PIP = 100/50 = 2 (potential for doubling performance)
 PIP cont‟d
• But, PIP must be a whole number (must
be above 1), so here‟s a tip:
– Always put the higher number on top to
calculate the PIP.
• Example:
– Mechanic A = 10 hrs task completion
– Mechanic B = 5 hrs task completion
– PIP = 10(typ)/5(ex) = 2
 PIP cont‟d
• This seems complicated…?
• At least two potential benefits of mastering this
technique:
1. PIP can be easily converted into dollars
– How much $ is saved/earned for each person who
performs at the exemplary level?
– Multiply savings/earnings by # of people to estimate value
of intervention
2. Given 2 pinpoints; must select one to work on
– Choose the highest PIP with highest potential dollar value
 Tips for Selecting a Pinpoint
1. Make sure it passes each requirement.
2. Make sure the pinpoint contributes to the
mission of the job, dept., or organization.
3. If no financial information, select the
pinpoint with the highest PIP.
4. If you have financial info, select the
pinpoint with the highest monetary value
 Step 3: Measurement
• Measure the pinpoint(s) you have selected
– Frequently
– Repeatedly over time
– Before, during, and after you implement
solutions
– Automatically, if possible
– Display the data graphically to show change
over time
 Graphing
• To graph, we want to show data points
as they occur across time

Time
 Graphing
• “Time” can be days, weeks, months, or some other
unit, but the more frequently data are updated, the
quicker behavior can change.

Time
 Graphing
• The vertical axis contains the units you are
measuring, such as percent safe, timeliness of
performance, or number of units produced.
100

0
1 8
Days
One Example: Multiple Baseline
• The multiple baseline design is stronger than
the AB design, because it rules out other
factors as the causes.
• Multiple baseline designs can be used across
– behaviors (PPE; Trip hazards; quantity of
production; etc.)
– areas or departments
– sites, plants, or locations
• The point of evaluation: You want to know if
what you did had an effect on the critical
behaviors and results.
100
Baseline Intervention

PPE Use
0
100 1 8
Baseline

Trip Hazards
0
1 8 16
Days
Other Frequently Used Designs
• Reversal design
• Multi-element design
• Changing criterion design
 Step 4: Diagnose the Problem
• In order to develop the best solution, you must
first determine the cause(s) of the problem.
• Then, the solution should address these causes.
• If it addresses the causes, the solution is said to
be “function-based”
– Function-based solutions save time, work more
quickly, produce larger effects, last longer, and are
typically easier to maintain.
 Diagnosing the Problem:
Functional Assessment
• Informant Assessment
– PDC/BEM; ABC analysis
– Question asking, informal analysis
– Assumed relationship between variables
• Descriptive Assessment
– Collect reliable data on A‟s, B‟s, and C‟s; show
correlation
• Experimental Analysis
– Manipulate variables based on hypotheses or
previous data, to show functional relationship
 Informant Assessment
• Performance Diagnostic Checklist (PDC)
& Behavior Engineering Model
• Use of a questionnaire to guide:
– Interviews with managers and/or employees
– Direct observations of various physical and
behavioral items
• These observations suggest certain
deficiencies, which are remedied by
intervention.
 The PDC:
Performance Diagnostic
Checklist
• Antecedents
• Knowledge and skills
• Equipment and processes
• Consequences

For a copy of the entire checklist, email

john.austin@wmich.edu or see:
Austin, J. (2000). Performance analysis and
performance diagnostics. In J. Austin & J. E. Carr
(Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis.
Reno, NV: Context Press.
 Antecedents and Information
• Written job description telling exactly what is expected of
the employee?
• Has the employee received adequate instruction about
what to do?
• Are employees aware of the mission of the
department/organization? Can they tell you what it is?
• Are there job or task aids in the employees‟ immediate
environment? Visible while completing the task in
question? Reminders to prompt the task at the correct
time?
• Is the supervisor present during task completion?
• Are there frequently updated, challenging, and attainable
goals set that employees are comfortable with/feel are
fair?
 Knowledge and Skills
• Can the employee tell you he/she is supposed to be
doing and how to do it?
• Had the performers received any training before
starting work?
• Do the performers understand the consequence of
both good and poor performance?
• Do they understand the concepts needed to perform
well?
• Do the performers have sufficient basic skills—
reading and so on?
• Can the employee physically demonstrate
completion of the task?
• Does the employee have the capacity to complete
the job?
 Equipment and Process
• Is task completion dependent upon
unreliable equipment?
• Is the equipment & environment optimally
arranged in a physical sense?
• Are larger processes suffering from certain
incomplete tasks along the way (process
disconnects)?
• Are these processes arranged in a logical
manner, without unnecessary repetition?
• Are there any other obstacles that are
keeping the employee from completing the
task?
 Consequences
• Are there consequences delivered contingent on the
task?
– frequency?__________________________________
– immediacy?__________________________________
– consistency/probability?________________________
– positive or negative?
– Are there premack reinforcers?
• Do employees see the effects of performance?
• Do supervisors deliver feedback?
• Is there performance monitoring?
• Is there a response effort associated with
performing?
• Are there other behaviors competing with the
desired performance?
Extra Information (Time Permitting)
• ABC Analysis:
– A problem-solving process in which the A's &
C's currently controlling desired and
undesired behaviors are listed and analyzed.
– Helps us to discover patterns among A's & C's
 Consequences
• Consequences have at least 3 important dimensions:
Sign:
Positive (P) or Negative (N)?
Timeliness:
Immediate (I) or Future (F) ?
Likelihood:
Certain (C) or Uncertain (U)?
• The strongest consequences are positive, immediate,
and certain: PIC‟s
• Most behaviors that don‟t happen have NIC‟s or
PFU‟s as a result. If we change this, we change
behavior.
 Steps of ABC Analysis
Broadly speaking, 7 steps:
1) Operationalize the problem performance
2) Operationalize the desired performance
3) Determine the severity of the problem – only address important
problems
4) Do ABC for problem performance
-ID A's & C's
-ID P/N; I/F; and C/U for all consequences
5) Do ABC for desired performance
-ID A's & C's
-ID P/N; I/F; and C/U
6) Summarize the A's and C's
-Antecedents
-current behavior will have more
-Consequences – PICs are most powerful
Steps of the ABC Analysis (Cont‟d)
7) Treatment suggestions:
a) add positive/immediate/certain
consequences for desired behavior
b) add antecedents for desired behavior
c) remove antecedents for undesired beh
d) remove NICs for desired behavior
e) remove PICs for undesired behavior
f) add NICs for undesired behavior
 ABC Analysis Worksheet

Describe the at-risk act:____________________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the safe (desired) act:_____________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the intervention plan (add antecedents and

PICs):
A’s: C’s:
 ABC Analysis Worksheet

Describe the at-risk act:____________________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the safe (desired) act:_____________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the intervention plan (add antecedents and

PICs):
A’s: C’s:
 ABC Analysis Worksheet

Describe the at-risk act:____________________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the safe (desired) act:_____________________

________________________________________________

List antecedents List consequences P/N I/F C/U

Describe the intervention plan (add antecedents and

PICs):
A’s: C’s:
 Step 5: Develop, Communicate,
and Implement a Solution
• List all deficiencies found during diagnosis, and
develop a solution for each.
• If possible, get input from those who will be
exposed to the solution.
• Before implementing the solution, clearly
communicate how it will work and outline
expectations.
• There are many possible behavior-analytic
solutions. We will briefly discuss 3:
– Feedback, goal setting, and reinforcement
 Performance Feedback
Feedback
-information about performance that
allows a person to change behavior.
-information must be presented in
certain ways in order for it to be
effective in changing behavior.
 Performance Feedback
10 Characteristics of Effective Feedback
positive
easily understood
includes specific information
on performance under control of recipient
immediate (before or after, depending on task)
individualized
self-monitored and/or monitored by supervisor
should signal R+
stated in the positive (#at-risk acts? - safe acts)
graphed
 Goal Setting
• Defining a preset or specified level of
performance to be attained.
• We set goals and subgoals all of the time
• Good goals are:
– Challenging yet attainable
• higher than (or toward the higher end of) baseline; but at
a point where it‟ll be reached occasionally
• better to start too low, and then increase it as you go.
 Goal Setting
• Factors to consider when setting goals:
– What should the performance improvement look
like?
• negatively accelerated curve
• positively accelerated curve
– What‟s the performer‟s history?
• If they‟ve done this before, they‟ll be better at it than most
– What levels are others performing at?
• Exemplars can set a standard
• What do the time-studies show?
– Participative goals?
• Probably least effective when performers lack experience
• Doesn‟t hurt to get input from high performers
• May depend on the situation
 Reinforcement & Reward
A Positive Reinforcer or reward:
-increases the frequency of a
behavior
-is usually pleasant
-follows behavior
-can be tangible or social
-is different for each person
 Positive Reinforcement
4 Reasons to use R+
1) R+ has positive side effects
2) Most performance problems are motivational (rather
than training)
3) People need R+
-they always „seek‟ reinforcement
4) R+ helps people to desire measurement
...that‟s how you get the R+!
 Positive Reinforcement
Identifying reinforcers
1) Ask people.
a) they may not know
b) they may not want to tell you
c) they may ask for things you can‟t give
2) Watch people-we do what we like.
3) Testing
-try some items out and examine their effects on
behavior - guess?
4) Let people choose
 Which R+ Should You
Choose?
R+ should be:
-Readily available
-social r+
-tangibles & trinkets may be less available as they take some
planning
-Available for frequent/repeated use
-shouldn‟t lose appeal quickly
...what would not qualify?
-Cost effective
-social is free
 Which R+ Should You
R+ should be:
Choose?
P - ositive
I - mmediate
C - ertain
About “relationships”
Novel (satiation)
Planned but spontaneous (plan what to R+, but
deliver it when it happens)
Ask, “How‟d you do that?”
 Delivering R+
1) Personalize it
– use R+ you‟re comfortable with
– vary your R+
– use employee name
– use “I”, not “we”
2) Make it specific
– tell people exactly what you liked
– you can not reinforce everything if you refer to
“performance”
 Delivering R+
3) Make it immediate
– catch „em in the act
– impact of delayed R+

Rule: Better late than never

...best immediately
...if late, be specific
 Delivering R+
4) Make R+ sincere
– don‟t say it if you don‟t mean it
– no flattery/unearned compliments
– use data and be specific
5) R+ frequently
– 50,000+ contingencies required to learn basic math
• increase number of R+ & people learn faster
– Try to use the 4:1 rule
• for every suggestion, there should be 4 positives
 Overview- Contests

Contests to support the PM process

1) Make them short
-weekly, monthly, quarterly
2) Do not use large tangible R+
- “bragging rights” NOT Color TVs!
3) Compete against a standard
-everyone can win
4) Make it fun
 Overview- Using Positive
Reinforcement
Avoiding Pitfalls of R+
1) Use a variety of R+
-people get tired of the same old thing
2) Don‟t ask for too much too soon
-shaping = R+ of small improvements
3) Don‟t R+ unless the behavior occurs
4) Always R+ others for reinforcing someone!
 Step 6: Evaluate the Results
Quantitative Evaluation
1. Pre- vs Post-measurement
2. Repeated measures
• Reversal design
• Multiple baseline design
3. Measure or estimate financial gain
• Real vs Amortized (e.g., for the year)
 Qualitative Evaluation
1. Social Validity (subjective evaluation)
– Ask about employee and management
satisfaction with solution
2. Allow people to choose between multiple
solutions, after exposure to each
 Levels of Evaluation
Try to evaluate at multiple levels:
• Personal level: Satisfaction with solution
• If training solution, assess learning during
training
• Job Level: Performance change on the job
• Organizational Level: Resultant financial
gains, or other gains such as company
image, customer relationships
 Step 7: Continue to Learn
• Join the OBM Network at
www.obmnetwork.com and visit the
website for free materials.
– Read the OBM Network News
– Read the Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management
 Recommended Reading
• Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management. Get this as a member
benefit by joining the OBM Network at
www.obmnetwork.com
• OBM Network News: Get this as a
member benefit by joining the OBM
Network at www.obmnetwork.com
 Recommended Books
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 Sample Feedback Articles
Alavosius, M. P., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1986). The effects of performance feedback on the safety of client lifting and transfer. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 19, 261-267.
Alvero, A. M., Bucklin, B. R., & Austin, J. (2001). An objective review of the effectiveness and essential characteristics of performance feedback
in organizational settings. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 21(1), 3-29.
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applied to a university hockey team. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 87-95.
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37-64.
Balcazar, F., Hopkins, B. L., & Suarez, Y. (1986). A critical, objective review of performance feedback. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 7(3/4), 65-89.
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 Sample Review Articles
Allison, D. B., Silverstein, J. M., & Galante, V. (1992). Relative effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of
cooperative, competitive, and independent monetary incentive systems. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 13, 85-112.
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 Sample Systems Articles
Brethower, D. M. (1995). Specifying a human performance technology
knowledgebase. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(2), 17-39.
Brethower, D. M. (2002, May 27). Behavioral systems analysis:
Fundamental concepts and cutting edge applications. Paper
presented at the International Association for Behavior Analysis
28th Annual Convention. Paper retrieved September 23, 2002,
from http://www.behavior.org.
Brethower, D. M., & Whitkopp, C. J. (1987). Performance engineering:
SPC and the total performance system. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 9(1), 83-103.
Sasson, J. R., & Austin, J. (2002). Performer-level systems analysis:
How systemic are behavioral interventions? A ten-year review of
the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 22(4).
Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (2000). Of eagles and worms: Changing behavior
in a complex world. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 20(3-4), 139-163.
 Sample Monetary Incentives
Articles
Dickinson, A. M., & Poling, A. (1996). Schedules of monetary reinforcement in organizational behavior
management. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 16(1), 71-91.
Frisch, C. J., & Dickinson, A. M. (1990). Work productivity as a function of the percentage of
monetary incentives to base pay. Journal of Organizational Behavior Mangement, 11, 13-28.
Honeywell-Johnson, J. A., McGee, H. M., Culig, K. M., & Dickinson, A. M. (2002). Different effects of
individual and group monetary incentives on high performance. The Behavior Analyst Today,
3(1), 88-103.
Hopkins, B. L., & Mawhinney, T. C. (Eds.). (1992). Pay for performance: History, controversy, and
evidence [Special issue]. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 12(1).
Huber, V. L. (1986). The interplay of goals and promises of pay-for-performance on individual and
group performance: An operant interpretation. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management,
7(3/4), 45-64.
LaMere, J. M., Dickinson, A. M., Henry, M., Henry, G., & Poling, A. (1996). Effects of a multi-
component monetary incentive program on the performance of truck drivers: A longitudinal study.
Behavior Modification, 20, 385-406.
Pritchard, R. D., Jones, S. D., Roth, P. L., Stuebing, K. K., & Ekeberg, S. E. (1988). Effects of group
feedback, goal setting and incentives on organizational productivity. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 73, 337-358.
Stoneman, K., & Dickinson, A. M. (1989). Individual performance as a function of group contingencies
and group size. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 10, 131-150.
Yukl, G., & Latham, G. (1975). Consequences of reinforcement schedules and incentive magnitude for
employee performance: Problems encountered in an industrial setting. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 60, 294-298
 Sample Goal Setting Articles
Buller, P. F., & Bell, Jr. C. H. (1986). Effects of team building and goal setting on
productivity: A field experiment. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 305-328.
Calpin, J. P., Edelstein, B., & Redmon, W. K. (1988). Performance feedback and goal
setting to improve mental health center staff productivity. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 9, 35-58.
Fellner, D. J., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1984). A behavioral analysis of goal
setting. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 6(1), 33-51.
Huber, V. L. (1986). The interplay of goals and promises of pay-for-performance on
individual and group performance: An operant interpretation. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 7(3/4), 45-64
Ralis, M. T., & O'Brien, R. M. (1986). Prompts, goal setting and feedback to increase
suggestive selling. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8, 5-18.
Wilk, L. A., & Redmon, W. K. (1990). A daily-adjusted goal-setting and feedback
procedure for improving productivity in a university admissions department. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 11, 55-75.
Wittkopp, C. J., Rowan, J. F., & Poling, A. (1990). Use of a feedback package to reduce
machine set-up time in a manufacturing setting. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 11, 7-22.
 Sample Schedules of
Reinforcement Articles
Dickinson, A. M., & Poling, A. (1996). Schedules of monetary
reinforcement in organizational behavior management: Latham and
Huber (1992) revisited. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management 16(1), 71-91.
Hantula, D.A., & Crowell, C.R. (1994). Intermittent reinforcement and
escalation processes in sequential decision making: A replication
and theoretical analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 14(2), 7-36.
Latham, G. P., & Dosset, D. L. (1978). Designing incentive plans for
unionized employees: A comparison of continuous and variable-
ratio reinforcement schedules. Personnel Psychology, 31, 47-61.
Latham, G. P., & Huber, V. (1992). Schedules of reinforcement:
Lessons from the past and issues for the future. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management Special Issue: Pay for
performance: History, controversy, and evidence, 12(1), 125-149.
Zieler, M. (1999). Reversed schedule effects in closed and open
economies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 71,
171-186.
 Sample Human Services Articles
Calpin, J., Edelstein, B., & Redmon, W. K. (1988). Performance feedback and goal
setting to improve mental health center staff productivity. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 9, 35-58.
Greene, B. F., Willis, B. S., Levy, R. & Bailey, J. S. (1978). Measuring client gains from
staff-implemented programs. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 459-471.
Green, C. W., Reed, D. H., Perkins, L. I., & Gardner, S. M. (1991). Increasing habilitative
services for person with profound handicaps: An application of structural analysis to
staff management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 459-471.
Langeland, K. L., Johnson, M. C., & Mawhinney, T. C. (1998). Improving staff
performance in a community mental health setting: Job analysis, training. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 18, 21-43.
Parsons, M. B., Cash, V. B. & Reed, D. H. (1989). Improving residential treatment
services: Implementation and norm-referenced evaluation of a comprehensive
management system. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 143-156.
Richman, G. S., Riordan, M. R., Reiss, M. L., Pyles, D. A., & Bailey, J. S. (1988). The
effects of self-monitoring and supervisor feedback on staff performance in a
residential setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 401-409.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., Pollack, M., Hamad, C., & Howley, T. (1998). Promoting widespread,
durable service quality via interlocking contingencies. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 19, 39-61.
For more articles on OBM in Human Services, please see the Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, Volume 18(3/4), 1998, which was devoted to this topic.
 Sample Theoretical Issues Articles
Aldis, 0. (1961). Of pigeons and men. Harvard Business Review, 39 (July-August), 59-63.
Austin, J., Carr, J., & Agnew, J. L. (1999). Need for assessing maintaining variables in OBM. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management,19, 59-87.
Baum, W. M. (1973). The correlation-based law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 20, 137-153.
Blakely, E., & Schlinger, H. (1987). Rules: Function-altering contingency-specifying stimuli. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 183-187.
Colarelli, S. M. (1998). Psychological interventions in organizations: An evolutionary perspective. American Psychologist, 53, 1044-1056.
Geller, E. S. (2001). From ecological behaviorism to response generalization: Where should we make the discriminations. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 21(4), 55-73.
Geller, E. S. & Lehman, G. (1991). The buckle up promise card: A versatile intervention for large scale behavior change. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 24, 91-94.Herrnstein, R. J. (1970). On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 243-
266.
Hursh, S. R. (1980). Economic concepts for the analysis of behavior. Journal
of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 34, 219-238.
Hursh, S. R. (1984). Behavioral economics. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 42, 435-452.
Luthans, F., & Thompson, K. R. (1987).Theory D and O.B. Mod.: Synergistic or opposite approaches to performance management. Journal of
Organizational
Behavior Management, 9(1), 105-124.
Malott, R. W., & Garcia, E. M. (1987). A goal-directed model for the design of human performance systems. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management,
9(1), 125-159.
Mawhinney, T. C. (1975). Operant terms and concepts in the description of individual work behavior: Some problems of interpretation,
application and evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 704-712,
Mawhinney, T. C. (1986). OBM, SPC, and Theory D: A brief introduction. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8(1), 89-105.
Mawhinney, T. C. (1992b). Total quality management and organizational behavior management: An integration for continual improvement.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 225-243.
Rao, R. K., & Mawhinney, T. C. (1991). Superior-subordinate dyads: Dependence
of leader effectiveness on mutual reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 56, 105-118.
Redmon, W. K., & Dickinson, A. M. (1987). A comparative analysis of
statistical process control, theory D, and behavior analytic approaches to quality
control. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 9(1), 47-65.
Vollmer, T. R. & Iwata, B. A. (1991). Establishing operations and reinforcement effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 279-291.
 Sample Rule Governed Behavior
Articles
Agnew, J. L. & Redmon, W. K. (1992). Contingency specifying stimuli:
The role of "rules" in organizational behavior management. Journal
of Organizational Behavior Management. 12(2), 67-76.
Malott, R. W. (1992). A theory of rule-governed behavior and
organizational behavior management. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 12(2), 45-65.
Mawhinney, T. C. (Ed.) (1992a). Organizational culture, rule-governed
behavior and organizational behavior management [special issue].
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 12(2).
Michael, J. (1993). Behavioral effects of remote contingencies.
Concepts and principles of behavior analysis (p. 87-93).
Kalamazoo, MI: Society for the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.
 Sample Behavior-Based Safety
Articles
Alavosius, M.P. & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1986). The effects of performance feedback on the safety of client lifting and transfer. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 19, 261-267.
Alavosius, M.P. & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1990). Acquisition and maintenance of health-care routines as a function of feedback density. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 151-162.
Alavosius, M.P. & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1985). An on-the-job method to evaluate patient lifting technique. Ergonomics, 16(4), 307-311.
Austin, J., Kessler, M.L., Riccobono, J.E., & Bailey, J.S. (1996). Using feedback and reinforcement to improve the performance and safety of a
roofing crew. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 16(2), 49-75.
Babcock, R.A., Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Sanderson, M. (1992). Increasing nurses‟ use of feedback to promote infection-control practices in a head
injury treatment center. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 621-627.
Chhokar, J.S. & Wallin, J.A. (1984). A field study of the effect of feedback frequency on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(3),
524-530.
DeVries, J.E., Burnette, M.M., & Redmon, W.K. (1991). AIDS prevention: improving nurses‟ compliance with glove wearing through
performance feedback. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 705-711.
Fellner, D.J. & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1984). Increasing industrial safety practices and conditions through posted feedback. Journal of Safety
Research, 15, 7-21.
Fox, D.K., Hopkins, B.L., & Anger, W.K. (1987). The long term effects of a token economy on safety performance in open-pit mining. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 215-224.
Geller, E. S. (2001). A total safety culture: From a corporate achievement to a global vision. Behavior and Social Issues, 11, 18-20.
Grindle, A., Dickinson, A., & Boettcher, W. (2000). Behavioral safety research in manufacturing settings: A review of the literature. Journal of
Organizational Behavior Management, 20(1), 29-68.
Harshbarger, D. & Rose, T. (1991). New possibilities in safety performance and the control of workers‟ compensation costs. Journal of
Occupational Rehabilitation, 1(2), 133-143.
Hopkins, B.L., Conard, R.J., Dangel, R.F., Fitch, H.G., Smith, M.J., & Anger, W.K. (1986). Behavioral technology for reducing occupational
exposures to styrene. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19(1), 3-11.
Komaki, J., Barwick, K.D., and Scott, L.W. (1978). A behavioral approach to occupational safety: Pinpointing and reinforcing safe performance
in a food manufacturing plant. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4), 434-445.
Krause, T. R., Sloat, K. C. M., Seymour, K. J. (1999). Long-term evaluation of a behavior-based method for improving safety performance: A
meta-analysis of 73 interrupted time-series replications. Safety Science, 32, 1-18.
Lingard, H. & Rowlinson, S. (1997). Behavior based safety management in Hong Kong‟s construction industry. Journal of Safety Research,
28(4), 243-256.
Lopez-Mena, L., Rodriguez-Moya, C., Soto-Elgueta, J. & Soto-Leconte, H. (1988). Beneficios económicos obtenidos con un programa
conductual en seguridad del trabajo. [Economic benefits obtained with a behavioral work safety program.]” Psicologia del Trabajo y de
Las Organizaciones, 4 , 74-86.
 Sample Behavior-Based Safety
Articles (2)
Ludwig, T.D. & Geller, E.S. (1991). Improving the driving practices of pizza deliverers: response generalization and moderating effects of
driving history. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 31-44.
Ludwig, T.D. & Geller, E.S. (1997). Assigned versus participative goal setting and response generalization: Managing injury control among
professional pizza deliverers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), 253-261.
Lusk, S.L. & Kelemen, M.J. (1993). Predicting use of hearing protection: A preliminary study. Public Health Nursing, 10(3), 189-196.
Lusk, S.L., Ronis, D.L., & Baer, L.M. (1995). A comparison of multiple indicators: Observations, supervisor report, and self-report as measures
of workers‟ hearing protection use. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 18(1), 51-63.
McAfee, R.B. & Winn, A.R. (1989). The use of incentives/feedback to enhance work place safety: a critique of the literature. Journal of Safety
Research, 20, 7-19.
McCann, K.B., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1996). Cumulative trauma disorders: Behavioral injury prevention at work. Journal of Applied Behavioral
Science, 32,(3), 277-291.
Phillips, R.A., Sutherland, V.J., & Makin, P.J. (1994). Reducing accidents using goal setting and feedback: A field study. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 219-240.
Reber, R.A. & Wallin, J.A. (1994). Utilizing performance management to improve offshore oilfield diving safety. International Journal of
Organizational Analysis, 2(1), 88-98.
Reber, R.A., Wallin, J.A., & Chhokar, J.S. (1990). Improving safety performance with goal setting and feedback. Human Performance, 3(1), 51-
61.
Reber, R.A. & Wallin, J.A. (1984). The effects of training, goal setting, and knowledge of results on safe behavior: A component analysis.
Academy of Management Journal, 27(3), 544-560.
Saari, J., & Näsänen, M. “The Effect of Positive Feedback on Industrial Housekeeping and Accidents: A Long Term Study at a
Shipyard”International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 4(1989): 201-211.
Saari, J. (1988). Successful accident prevention: An intervention study in the Nordic countries. Scandinavian Journal of Work and
Environmental Health, 14, 121-123.
Smith, M.J., Anger, W.K., & Uslan, S.S. (1978). Behavioral modification applied to occupational safety. Journal of Safety Research, 10(2), 87-
88.
Streff, F.M., Kalsher, M.J., & Geller, E.S. (1993). Developing efficient workplace safety programs: Observations of response covariation.
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 13(2), 3-14.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., Loafman, B., Merante, R.J., & Hlavacek, A.C. (1990). Improving occupational safety in a large industrial plant: A systematic
replication. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 11(1), 99-120.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Fellner, D.J. (1984). Searching for performance targets in the behavior analysis of occupational health and safety: An
assessment strategy. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 6(2), 53-65.
 Sample Customer Service Articles
Brown, C., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1994). An assessment of the
relationship between customer satisfaction and service friendliness.
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 14, 55-75.
Brown, M. G., Malott, R. W., Dillon, M. J., & Keeps, E. J. (1980).
Improving customer service in a large department store through the
use of training and feedback. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 2(4), 251-265.
Komaki, J., Blood, M., & Holder, D. (1980). Fostering friendliness in a
fast food franchise. Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management, 2(3), 151-164.
LaFleur, T., & Hyten, C. (1995). Improving the quality of hotel banquet
staff performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management,
15(1-2), 69-93.
Wilson, C., Boni, N. & Hogg, A. (1997). The effectiveness of task
clarification, positive reinforcement and corrective feedback in
changing courtesy among police staff. Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, 17(1), 65-99.