Cell Division

TERMINOLOGIES
DNA - linear sequence of nucleotides
Chromosome - A full chain length double
stranded, supercoiled DNA molecule. Usually
becomes visible when the DNA condenses
during prophase.
Chromatid - After the DNA molecule replicates,
each DNA molecule of the identical pair is
called a chromatin. The pair of chromosomes
is called sister chromatids.

Terminologies Contd
Centromere - The region where the two sister
chromatids are joined
Microtubule - These are made from globular
protein
molecules called tubulin that
are a part
of the cytoskeleton
structure of the cell.
Spindle Fibre - These are structures derived
from
microtubules that are used to
pull apart
the genetic material in a cell.
They are
attached to the centrosome
and the
centromere during moving

Terminologies Contd

Centriole - Each centriole is a ring of nine

groups of
fused microtubules. There are
three
microtubules in each group,
made from
protein called tubulin.
During cell division, microtubules form
spindle, and are responsible for moving
the chromosomes around.
Kinetochore-This is a protein located in the
centromere
which serves as an
attachment point for the
spindle fibre. This
attachment allows the
spindle fibre to
move the chromosomes
around.

Cell Cycle
Cells go through a process called the cell cycle in to ensure
their continued existence, that is to replicate themselves.
Somatic cells (all cells except sex cells) have two phases in the
cell cycle.
Interphase
Mitosis
Interphase is the longest duration of the cell cycle. It is the
time when the cell prepares itself for division, by increasing
in size, the amount of genetic materials as well as the
number of each cell organelle
Mitosis is the process by which the cell divides into two
identical daughter cells.

Interphase
Interphase consists of three stages:
G-1 stageDuring this stage the cell begins
to increase in size to accommodate the
increase number of organelles.
S stage- Also called the synthesis stage.
During this period, the cell synthesize
organelles and DNA replication occurs in the
nucleus.
G-2 stage- During the stage the cell
completes its growth, thus attaining its
maximum size before cell division begins.

Mitosis
Mitosis consists of four stages:
Prophase
Metaphase (prometaphase and metaphase)
Anaphase
Telophase
At the end of mitosis, a final action called
cytokinesis occurs to split the cytoplasm in
two, thus forming two daughter cells.

Prophase
The following occurs during prophase
Condensation (supercoil and thickening) of
the DNA into defined chromosomes.
Nucleolus disappears
The nuclear membrane begins to
breakdown
Centrioles move away from each other

Prometaphase
The centrioles position themselves at
opposite ends of the cell
Spindle fibres formed and attaches to the
centromere of the chromosomes by
kinetechores
The nuclear membrane fully disappears

Metaphase
With the nuclear membrane gone, the
chromosomes are able to move about in a
wider space. The spindle fibres are now
attached to all the chromosomes in the cell.
The microtubules pull in opposite direction on
the centromeres, bringing the chromosomes to
an aligned position along the equator (middle of
the cell).

Anaphase
The microtubules continued pull on
the centromeres cause the
chromatids to pull apart and move to
either end of the cell.

Telophase
The two groups of chromatids are at the poles
At this stage the chromatids are now called
chromosomes.
The microtubules making up the spindle fibres,
break down, causing the spindle to disappear.
New nuclear envelopes form around each group
of chromosomes.
The chromosomes then uncoiled, become
thinner, and once again they are difficult to see
when stained.

Cytokinesis
The cell is compressed by a contractile ring
that divides the cell into two equal halves.
The other cell organelles begin to appear.
Each new cell has its own centrioles
The new cells are genetically identical to each
other and the parent cell.

Mitosis Contd
Importance of mitosis
Replication of somatic cells
Growth in plants occurs in the
meristem region of roots and shoots
Facilitate asexual reproduction in
unicellular organisms.
Important for development in simple
multicellular organisms

Mitosis Contd
Importance of Mitosis Contd
Preservation of diploid number of
chromosomes to ensure the
preservation of genetic traits.
It is involved in immune response When the lymphocytes come in contact
with bacteria, which has an antigen
that binds with a cell receptor, it is
stimulated to divide repeatedly by

Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that only occurs
in gametes.
It divides a diploid cell to produces four haploid
cells that are not identical to each other.
Each new cell becomes a gamete.
When the nuclei of a male and a female gamete
fuse together they form a zygote which now
has a diploid number of chromosome.
In a diploid cell, there are two matching copies
of each chromosomes. These are known as
homologous chromosomes.

Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes consists of a
pair of chromosome, one of each
donated by either of the two parents.
Homologous chromosomes carry the
same gene at the same positions (loci).
Genes are base sequences that carry
genetic information in a section of a
DNA chain.

Activities Unique to Meiosis

During Prophase, homologous chromosomes
join into pairs called bivalents.
In a bivalent, the chromatid of one
chromosome cross a chromatid of another
forming a chiasma (crossing over point).
Pural is chiasmata.
In metaphase, bivalents are pulled to the
equator by microtubule spindle attachment.
During anaphase, homologous chromosomes
are pulled together to opposite poles.

Prophase - 1
DNA replication precedes the start of meiosis I.
During prophase I, homologous chromosomes
pair and form synapses.
The paired chromosomes are called bivalents,
and the formation of chiasmata caused by
genetic recombination becomes apparent.

Note that the bivalent has two chromosomes and

four chromatids, with one chromosome coming
from each parent.

Prometaphase - 1

The nuclear membrane disappears. One

kinetochore forms per chromosome rather
than one per chromatid, and the
chromosomes attached to spindle fibers begin
to move.

Metaphase - 1
Bivalents, each composed of two chromosomes,
align at the metaphase plate. The orientation is
random, with either parental homologue on a
side.
This means that there is a 50-50 chance for the
daughter cells to get either the mother's or
father's homologue for each chromosome.

Anaphase - 1
Chiasmata separate. Chromosomes move to
separate poles. Each of the daughter cells is
now haploid (23 chromosomes), but each
chromosome has two chromatids
Independent Assortment takes place.

Telophase - 1
Nuclear envelopes may reform, or the cell may
quickly start meiosis II.

Cytokinesis - 1
Analogous to mitosis where two complete
daughter cells form when the cell divides.

Meiosis - II
In meiosis-II, each daughter cells from
meiosis-I now undergoes cell division,
identical to mitosis.

Features of Chromosomes
humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, a gamete (egg or
sperm) could have 223 or 8,388,604 possible
combinations of chromosomes from that parent. Any
couple could have 223223 or 70,368,744,177,644 (70
trillion) different possible children, based just on the
number of chromosomes, not considering the actual
genes on those chromosomes.
Thus, the chance of two siblings being exactly identical
would be 1 in 70 trillion.
In addition, something called crossing over, in which the
two homologous chromosomes of a pair exchange equal
segments during synapse in Meiosis I, can add further
variation to an individuals genetic make-up.

Features of Chromosomes Contd

Alleles
An allele is an alternative form of a gene (one
member of a pair) that is located at a specific
position on a specific chromosome.
These DNA codes determine distinct traits that can
be passed on from parents to offspring. The
process by which alleles are transmitted was
discovered by Gregory Mendel and formulated in
what is known as Mendel's law of segregation.
Organisms have two alleles for each trait. When
the alleles of a pair are heterozygous, one is
dominant and the other is recessive.

Features of Chromosomes Contd