Laboratory Experiments

in Radiation Detection
and Measurement
North Carolina Science Teachers Association Conference
Greensboro, NC
November 12, 2004
Gerald Wicks, CHP
North Carolina State University
Department of Nuclear Engineering
And the North Carolina Chapter of the Health Physics Society

Radiation Types

Alpha:
Beta:
Photons:
origin while
de-excitation
nuclear in
mass
Neutron:
Proton:

He nucleus, charge of +2
Electron, charge of -1 or +1
Electromagnetic radiation,
X-rays come from de-excitation of
electrons and are atomic in
gamma rays come from
of the nucleus and are
origin, no charge, no

Neutral particle
Particle with charge of +1, or H
nucleus
Fission fragments and recoil atoms are charged atoms
Mesons are charged particles with ~270 x mass of
electron

Radioactive Decay

Alpha Particle

Beta Minus Particle

Nucleus undergoes fission (heavy elements)

Delayed Neutron Emission

Atomic electron is captured by nucleus and combines with a proton

to form a neutron

Spontaneous Fission

Proton decays to neutron, beta plus particle (positively charged

electron) and neutrino, positron has energy up to a maximum value

Electron Capture

Neutron decays to proton, beta minus particle (electron) and antineutrino, beta particle has energy up to a maximum value

Beta Plus Particle

He nucleus tunnels out of nucleus, discrete energy

A few fission products undergo decay and emit neutrons

All of the above may produce gamma rays and x-rays

Chart of the Nuclides

Decay Scheme for Co-60

Charged Particle Interactions

Charged particle coulombic fields undergo
collision with bound atomic electrons
producing free electrons and charged
atoms, or ions, with kinetic energy
Charged particles that pass near the
nucleus are accelerated and produce
x-rays of variable energy ranging up to the
kinetic energy of the incident particle, this
is also known as Bremsstrahlung

Photon Interactions

Photons, or x-rays and gamma rays, interact

with matter to produce electrons, scattered
photons, positrons and annihilation photons, and
charged recoiling atoms by various interactions
Majority of energy from photon interactions is
given to electrons, positrons, and photons
Annihilation photons result from combination of
positron and electron at rest and have an energy
of equal to the rest mass of an electron, 0.511
MeV

Neutron Interactions

A variety of absorption and capture interactions

occur in which radioactive atoms, charged
particles, photons, neutrons, recoil nuclei, and
fission fragments are produced
(n,alpha)

(n,gamma) (n, fission) (n, proton) (n, triton)

Scattering interactions may produce scattered

neutrons of lower energy and a nucleus in an
excited state. Upon nuclear de-excitation,
photons are emitted
(n,

n) (n, n + gamma)

Neutron Activation
(absorption or capture reaction)

Neutron Activation

A = N [(1-exp(-ta)] exp(-td)
Where:
A = Activity (Bequerels)
N = number atoms of parent isotope
= neutron flux (n/cm2/sec)
= capture reaction cross section
= decay constant
ta/td = sample activation and decay times

Radiation Terms and Units

Dose
Energy

deposited per unit mass

RAD = 100 ergs / gram, 1 Gy = 1 J / Kg = 100 RAD

Exposure
Ionization

produced by photons in a mass of air,

Roentgen = 2.58 E-4 Coulombs / Kg

Dose-equivalent
Tissue

Dose X quality factor, Q X Modifying Factor, N

REM = RAD X quality factor, N is typically 1
1 Sv = 100 REM
Quality factor, Q, accounts for difference in the
biological damage caused by different radiation types

RADIATION DETECTORS
Gas

filled detectors, e.g. Geiger-Mueller (GM)

counters, Proportional counters, and Ion
Chambers
Solid detectors, e.g. scintillators and semiconductors
Liquid detectors, e.g. scintillators and
chemical dosimeters
Dosimeters, e.g. film, thermoluminescent
dosimeters
Ratemeters and counters (scalers)

GM Detectors

A fill gas is contained in a sealed tube of various shapes,

sizes
Ionization occurs in the fill gas and in the detector wall
material (wall is at ground potential and serves as the
cathode)
Ions in the fill gas are accelerated and produce further
ionization giving a pulse of maximum amplitude that is
collected at the detector anode
GM detectors produce a full amplitude pulse (count) for
any ion that enters the detector, so distinction between
radiation types is not possible
GM detectors are very sensitive, inexpensive and rugged
and therefore commonly used

Ion Chambers

Fill gas is air that may or may not be contained in

a sealed chamber
Ionization occurs in the fill gas and in the detector
wall material (wall is at ground potential and
serves as the cathode)
Ions in the fill gas are collected at the detector
anode and produce a pulse height proportional to
the number of interactions, or ionization,
occurring in the detection volume
Ion chambers are very accurate and allow
distinction between radiation types based on
pulse height

Solid Detectors

Scintillation crystals respond to radiation

interactions by producing light. The light is then
detected and converted to an electrical signal
with a pulse height proportional to the radiation
energy deposition rate. Scintillators are
extremely sensitive to radiation and are often
used for obtaining energy spectra.
Semi-conductors respond to radiation by
producing electron-hole pairs. The pulse height
proportional to the radiation energy deposition
rate. Semi-conductors have superior resolution
compared to scintillators are therefore a better
choice for obtaining energy spectra.

Gamma Energy Spectrum

Liquid Detectors

Scintillation detectors respond to radiation

interactions by producing light which is then
detected and converted to an electrical signal.
The pulse height proportional to the radiation
energy deposition rate. The sample and
scintillator are mixed making alpha and beta
particle detection very efficient.
Chemicals respond to radiation by changing
oxidation state, which produces a change in
spectrophotometry in which the peak size is
proportional to the radiation energy deposition
rate

Radiation Dosimeters

Film responds to photons by changing its lattice structure

and upon development forms a latent image. The optical
density is related to the radiation energy deposited.
Films may also be used to detect particles, which
produce tracks upon being developed. The number and
length of tracks are used to determine the amount and
type of charged particles.
TLD are crystalline materials and respond to radiation by
forming electron hole pairs. Some e-h pairs are trapped
at the time of formation in crystal imperfections. Upon
addition of heat the trapped e-h pairs become mobile and
release light which is then detected and related to the
radiation energy deposited.

Radiation Sources
Consumer products (lantern mantles,
welding rods, KI salt, smoke detectors)
Radon and its decay products (decay
products are collected on furnace or
vacuum cleaner filters radon can be
collected using charcoal canisters)
Exempt quantities of radioactive materials
(under 10 CFR 30)

Radiation Sources

Naturally occurring sources;

H-3,

C-14, K-40, Th-232, U-238 radon

Cosmogenic and terrestial sources

Technology enhanced sources;

Mining

of U producing higher levels of

naturally occurring radioactive materials

Artificial sources;
Fission

products, activation products,

accelerated produced radioactive materials

Laboratories using GM Detector

Radiation type identification
Radiation shielding
Radiation source detection
Half-life determination
Detection efficiency
Detector resolving time
Backscatter factor

Identification of Radiation Type

GM detector wall thickness affects
response. For the CDV-700 GM tube,
moderate energy beta particles and all
photons can be detected.
Open window = beta + photon
Closed window = photon
Open closed window = beta
NOTE:
YOUR CDV-700 IS NOT CALIBRATED!

Radiation Shielding

Count rate, or mR/h reading, from a

radiation source decreases as shielding is
added. Beta radiation is easily shielded
with paper, Al foil, or plastic. Photons are
shielded best with high atomic numbered
materials like Pb, W, or U although any
material will work.

Radiation Shielding

Beta shielding and range are related. Beta

particles have a defined range based on beta
particle energy. Range equations are given in
the attached file and on the next page.
Photon range has no endpoint in theory.
Shielding is based on photon energy.
R = R(0) exp (-uT)
where R is response, u is the linear attenuation
coefficient. u is a function of photon energy for a
given material.

Beta:

R = 0.412 E(1.265 - 0.0954 lnE)

where E < 2.5 MeV

R = 0.530 E - 0.106

where E > 2.5 MeV

E is maximum beta particle energy in MeV and R is g cm-2

Alpha, Proton, Beta:

R = dEn

where d and n are experimental parameters

and R is g cm-2

Material

Alph a
n
d

P roton
n
d

Bet a
n
d

Water
Al
Pb
C

1.793
1.730
1.680
1.787

1.793
1.730
1.680
1.787

1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32

1.62E-4
3.15E-4
7.00E-4
1.86E-4

1.95E-3
3.47E-3
7.18E-3
2.22E-3

0.356
0.400
0.640
0.356

Radiation Shielding

Place source 2 inches away from open window GM counter

for beta particles
Maintain source-detector geometry and place materials of
known thickness between the source and detector
The exact thickness where the GM detector response equals
that of background occurs if the beta particles are completely
shielded. This material thickness is the range.
For photons, use a closed window. Determine the thickness
where the GM detector response, R, is half and also a tenth
of the unshielded response, R(0). These are the half value
layer (HVL) and tenth value layer (TVL), respectively.
Determine and compare the the linear attenuation
coefficients:
R/R(0) = exp (-uT) = 0.5 for HVL; u = -[ln 0.5/T]
R/R(0) = exp (-uT) = 0.1 for TVL ; u = -[ln 0.1/T]

Radiation Shielding

A curved line, or change in the shape of the line,

indicates that more than one radiation energy is
present, or multicomponent line.
For resolution, determine the shape of the high
energy line (high thickness readings) and
extrapolate back to lower energies (lower
thickness readings). This produces a third, low
energy line.
Extrapolate the low energy line to a zero reading
to determine the range of the lower energy
radiation

Radiation Source Detection

Perform instrument checks to verify
operation
Determine background radiation level in
an area known to be free of radiation
sources
Survey area and items with open window
If elevated readings are found, survey with
open and closed window. Record data.

Half-life Determination

Obtain source with half-life of minutes or days range

Set up source next to open window detector
Record detector reading and time. Repeat this step to
obtain several data points.
Plot results on semi-log paper with detector readings on
y-axis (log scale) and time on x-axis (linear scale)
Determine slope, m, which is also the decay constant;
m = {ln[(y(1)] ln[y(2)]}/[t(1) t(2)]
Determine half-life using the slope (decay constant or );
ln 2 = T1/2
Compare results to reported value for the source

Half-life Determination
Equations used in this lab:
A= N
A(t) = A(0) e- t
ln 2 = T1/2
Specific Activity = A/mass
Constants:

1 mole = 6.022 E23 atoms

3.7 E10 dps = 1 Ci
is decay constant
f is isotopic fraction
T1/2 is half- life

A is activity
t is decay time
N is number of atoms

Detector Efficiency

Used for detector calibration

Used in analysis of samples and sources
Used to determine detector sensitivity, or
detection limits
Efficiency, E = cpm / dpm or counts per decay
for a given radiation type and energy. E may
also be expressed as counts per beta particle,
counts per gamma photon, etc. by using the
radiation yield, Y;
E = cpm / dpm X 1 decay / Y

Detector Efficiency Curve for

Semi-Conductor Detector

Detector Efficiency
For GM detectors, beta efficiency is
affected by distance and beta particle
energy
Typical efficiencies for CDV-700 for
moderate to high energy beta particles
range between 0.01 to 0.05 c/d

Detector Resolving Time

Resolving time is used to correct for count rate,

cpm, losses. These losses occur because the
counting rate exceeds the ability of the detector
to process the pulses.
Obtain two sources, one of low activity and a
second of higher activity
Place the first source near the open window and
record the cpm reading, or R(1)
Place the second source near the open window
and record the cpm reading, or R(2)
Place the both sources near the open window
and record the cpm reading, or R(1+2)

Detector Resolving Time

Calculate detector resolving time as follows:

t = [R(1) + R(2) R(1+2)] / [2 R(1)R(2)]
Typical GM detector resolving times, t, are
hundreds of microseconds, us
(e.g. 100 us = 1.67 E-6 minutes)
R = R(0) / [1-R(0) t], if R(0) is cpm, use t in
minutes
R(0) is observed count rate, in cpm
R is the true count rate, in cpm

Backscatter Factor

Backscattering is the deflection of radiation by scattering

processes through angles greater than 90 degrees with
respect to the original direction
Alpha radiation travels in a straight line motion while beta
particles will alter their path direction significantly upon
interacting with matter. As a result, backscattering may
be significant for beta radiation sources counted by a
GM detector depending on the beta particle energy and
source backing material.
As a result of beta particle backscattering, the detector
count rate increases
Backscatter factors may be as high as 40%
Corrections for backscattering may be necessary for
analytical measurements

Backscatter Factor

Obtain a high energy beta emitting radioactive source in liquid form

Uniformly disperse and evaporate on an extremely thin layer of
material (saran wrap, scotch tape, mylar). Also cover the source with
a thin layer of material to prevent the spread of contamination.
Place the GM open window tube near the source and record the cpm
reading, C(0)
Place additional backing material of known thickness underneath the
source (minimize air gaps by using adhesive tape or epoxy) and
record the cpm reading, C
Continue the previous step until a maximum cpm reading is
observed. This is the saturation point, which is approximately 0.3
times the beta particle range.
The linear thickness of a particular material to produce backscattering
is approximately proportional to the reciprocal of the density of the
material
If interested, repeat using other materials and observe the change on
backscattering. Their should be a dependence on atomic number.
% Backscatter = [C C(0)/C(0)] x 100
C is cpm with backing material, C(0) is cpm with minimal backing