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Introduction
Definition
Definition ctd
Recovery Mechanisms
Reserves Addition
Producing Phases
10
Efficiency of a Displacement
Process
Introduction
Microscopic Displacement of Fluid in a
Reservoir
Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids in a
Reservoir
11
Trapped Oil
EM
Injection
E EV * ED
Where;
ED
14
Macroscopic Displacement
Where;
E EV ED
E
However,
EV E A E L
EA
EL
NP
S oiVP
ED * E A * EL * (
)
BO
ER
ER
ER
ER
ER
ER
are:
30%-50%
30%-55%
30%-65%
35%-63%
18
Steam drive
By decreasing the oil
viscosity
By using a miscible
displacing fluid
Action on Displacement
Efficiency at the Pore
Scale
Polymer
flooding
By reducing the
interfacial tension
By action on the
rock wettability
In-situ combustion
Carbon dioxide drive
Miscible hydrocarbon
gas flooding
Surfactant flooding
Alkaline flooding
19
20
This efficiency is measured directly from a coreflood (since EV =1). It can also be
evaluated from the Buckley-Leveret (or fractional flow theory). For an immiscible
displacement E D is bounded by a residual phase saturation of the displaced phase Sor.
Miscible displacements eliminate - in principle - S
or
21
Example
ED=0.50
22
Capillary Forces
Solid Wettability
Capillary Pressure
Viscous Forces
23
Oil
Connate Water
Sand Grain
25
L
Liquid
The force per unit length required to create additional
surface area is the surface tension, usually expressed in
dynes/cm.
26
27
One of the simplest ways to measure the surface tension of liquid is to use a capillary
tube.
At the static condition the force owing to surface tension will be balanced by the force
of gravity acting on the column of fluid.
rh( w o ) g
2 cos
28
29
Water-wet System
Oil-wet System
30
ow
Water
os
ws
os ws ow cos
31
Wettability
os ws ow cos
32
p o p w h( w o ) g p c
ow
or
rp c
2 cos
2 ow cos
Pc
r
34
35
Viscous Force
36
Viscous Force
Capillary Number
N ca
ow
37
Mobility ratios
Throughput or Transmissibility
Wettability
Dip angle
Capillary number
38
Oil or k rw
Increasing
NC
41
Viscous Force
EOR-Chapter 2
44
L
p (0.158)(
)
k
p
0.158 1.0 ft / D 10 cp 0.2
1.264 psi / ft
L
0.250 darcies
45
p / L
0.68 psi
0.01 cm
30.48 cm
ft
2073 psi / ft
46
47
Introduction
Oil recovery in any displacement process depends on the volume of
reservoir contacted by the injected fluid. A quantitative measure of this
contact is the volumetric displacement (sweep) efficiency defined as the
fraction of reservoir (or project )PV that has been contacted or affected by
the injected fluid. Clearly, EV is a function of time in a displacement
process.
Overall displacement efficiency in a process can be viewed conceptually as
a product of the volumetric sweep, EV ,and the microscopic efficiency, ED
48
S o1 S o 2
Np (
)V p EV
Bo1 Bo 2
Where ;
49
RF
Where;
Np
N1
ED EV
N1
EV
Np
S o1
So 2
Vp (
)
Bo1
Bo 2
50
Where
Np
Np
S o1
So 2
Vp (
)
Bo1
Bo 2
51
EV E A * E L
52
EL
EV E P E L
53
EV E P E L
E EP EL ED
54
55
56
57
When oil is produced from patterns of injectors and producers, the flow is
such that only part of the area is swept at breakthrough. the expansion of
the water bank is initially radial from the injector but eventually is focused
at the producer.
The pattern is illustrated for a direct line drive at a mobility ratio of unity. At
breakthrough a considerable area of the reservoir is unswept.
58
Parameters Affecting E A
Mobility Definition
Mobility Control
W
kW
kO
Mobility controls the relative ease with which fluids can flow
through a porous medium.
M D / d
Mobility ratio
62
Dimensionless Time
This variable is used to scale-up between the laboratory and the
field . The dimensionless time is defined as the
63
Viscous Fingering
64
Viscous Fingering
EOR-Chapter 2
65
Viscous Fingering
E A - Decreases when the mobility ratio increases because the displacement
EOR-Chapter 2
66
Flooding Patterns
EOR-Chapter 2
67
Flooding Patterns
EOR-Chapter 2
68
Flooding Patterns
EOR-Chapter 2
69
Permeability Heterogeneity
70
71
Correlations Based on .
Correlations Based on Miscible Fluids, Five-Spot Pattern.
Figure 1 shows fluid fronts at different points in a flood for
different mobility Ratios. The Viscosity Ratio varied in different
floods and, because only one phase was present, M is given by
Equation.
d
M
D
72
Producing well
Injection well
Breakthrough
M=0.151
Breakthrough
M=1.0
73
BT
BT
PV
PV
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.06
0.1
M=4.58
M=2.40
PRODUCING WELL
X INJECTION WELL
BT=BREAKTHROUGH
BT
BT
0.15
0.05
M=17.3
M=71.5
PRODUCING WELL
X INJECTION WELL
BT=BREAKTHROUGH
Correlations Based on .
Correlation Based on
Miscible Fluids
Correlations Based on
Immiscible Fluids, Five Spot
Pattern
80
Water-Gas
Gas-Oil
Miscible
Mobility Ratio,M
Figure-6: Areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of mobility
ratio( immiscible fluid displacement);
81
Mathematical Modeling-Numerical
82
V pd Ah ( Soi Sor )
Figure 8 gives EA as a function of M for different values of the
fractional flow of the displacing phase ,fD, at the producing well.
84
85
86
q i
87
Mobility Ratio,M
89
Conductance Ratio,
Mobility Ratio,M
A waterflood is conducted in a five-spot pattern in which the pattern area is 20 acres. Reservoir properties are:
h 20 ft
0.2
S oi 0.8
S or 0.25
o 10 cp
w 1 cp
Bo 1.0 RB / STB
k 50 md
k rw 0.27( at ROS )
k ro 0.94( at S wi )
p 1250 psi
rw 0.5 ft
91
Required
Use the method of Caudle and Witte to calculate:
(1) the barrels of oil recovered at the point in time
at which the producing WOR=20 ,
(2) the volume of water injected at the same point
(3) the rate of water injection at the same point in
time
(4) the initial rate of water injection at the start of
waterflood
92
Solution
0.001538k k rd hp
d
d (log 0.2688)
rw
i=63.4 B/D
From Fig. 9, =2.7, from
q i=
i=63.4 B/D
93
Calculation of EA with
Mathematical Modeling
95
EOR-Chapter 2
97
Mobility ratio
Vertical to horizontal permeability variation
Capillary forces
98
Heterogeneity
Observation of thre figure indicates a stratified reservoir with layers of different
permeability. The displacement of the fluid is an idealized piston-flow type. Due to
the permeability contrast the displacing fluid will break through earlier in the first
layer, while the entire cross-section will achieve sweep-out at a later time, when
layer #4 breaks through.
EOR-Chapter 2
99
100
Heterogeneity:Dykstra-Persons
model
101
Water tongue
Water
Gas umbrella
Gas
102
Gravity Effect
Gravity is a factor that affects the vertical efficiency not only in heterogeneous
reservoirs but in homogenous as well.
Gravity effects will be important when: (1) vertical communication is good. This is
1
satisfied when RL is large.
v 2
L
L k
R
( )
H k
(2) When gravity forces are strong compared to viscous forces. This is satisfied
when the gravity number Ng is large.
Ng
kg
103
Gravity Effect
Where:
= relative mobility of displacing fluid
= density difference (displaced - displacing)
u = superficial velocity
Both numbers are dimensionless.
The following figures indicate gravity effects for two different situations
1- Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid
The displacing fluid will tend to flow to the top of the reservoir and bypass the
fluid in the lower region (tongue over).
104
Gravity Effect
Tonguing will occur when M < 1 as long as R Land Ng are large. The effect of
heterogeneity and gravity can be mitigated by a favorable mobility ratio.
Gravity tonguing does not require a dipping reservoir (although dipping can be
used as an advantage when gravity is important). Gravity tonguing is important in
steam flooding applications.
Gravity Effect
Displacing
Phase
Displacing
Phase
Displaced
Phase
Experimental Result
109
110
111
112
Solution
EOR-Chapter 2
113
Mathematical Model
114
115
117
SOLVENT
Oil
Oil
(C) REGION IV
118
119
Volumetric Efficiency
Physical
mathematical
EOR-Chapter 2
121
122