2D4: Integrity of Materials

& Components
Properties of Materials
Failure Modes and Prevention
Failure Prevention Strategies
Non-destructive Testing

Forces on Materials
Tensile Force

Compressive Force

Shear Force

Bending
Tension

Compression

Effects of Loading
Provided that load is not excessive,
material itself will return to its
original size when load is removed
(material behaving in elastic
manner
At increased stresses deformation
becomes permanent - material is
said to be plastic

Main Modes of Failure

Ductile failure
Brittle failure
Metal fatigue
Buckling
Corrosion
Wear
Creep

Ductile Failure
Material moves into plastic region and loses its original
shape
There is a reduction in cross-sectional area which
increases the stress (stress is proportional to area)
Failure occurs at the place of reduced cross-sectional
area
Temperature is a major factor
The higher the temperature, the more ductile
materials become i.e. they can elongate more before
failure

Brittle Failure
Occur very suddenly and without warning
Occur because the structure of a material
does not slip, either owing to the material
structure or there is insufficient time due to
the intensity of the load
Small cracks spread through the material so
quickly that massive failure is produced
Speed of failure often results in some energy
in material being released as sound, giving
brittle failure a characteristic crack

Brittle Failure
Note that in other failure modes, the actual failure
may be by brittle mode, but this will only be part of
the sequence of failure
Some factors that promote brittle failure:
Low temperature
Impact or Snatch Loading e.g. lifting equipment
Residual tensile stress e.g. pre-tensioned beams
Inherently brittle material e.g. glass and ceramics

In appearance, a brittle failure shows no sign of any

deformation - the parts could be fitted back together.
The surface will be bright and there may be chevron
markings across the failed surface

Metal Fatigue

Most common type of failure where conditions producing

mechanical vibration occur
Fluctuating stress conditions produced by vibration (e.g.
aircraft wings going up and down during flight) can cause
formation of a crack that propagates through the material
Crack reduces the area of material resisting the stresses
until the remaining material can no longer resist the
stresses and fails
Failure is generally a brittle failure as it is the less ductile
materials that are used to resist cyclic loading

Metal Fatigue

Initial crack always starts from the surface and penetrates into
body of material
Surface blemishes e.g. machining marks and foreign body
inclusions are likely candidates to set fatigue failure into action, as
are holes for bolts, rivets, inspection hatches etc.
The final area of metal in place when failure occurs is clearly
identified by its colour - the surface of the crack will be dull due to
the effects of air and moisture being in contact and setting up mild
corrosion, while the newly failed surface will show signs of new,
clean brittle failure
Metal fatigue cracks can be readily detected by NDT
Surface defects should be removed where possible by polishing

Buckling
When a compressive force is put into a rod, beam or bar the force
is resisted by the material
As force increases, the material distorts, preventing a straight
transfer of stress through the material
Failure is due to tensile forces on the extreme causing ductile
failure which propagates through the material and leads to
catastrophic collapse
Can be better resisted by a ductile material than a brittle material
due to ability to resist tensile forces introduced by the bowing
on the outside surface
Can be limited by installing intermediate supports to limit
movement from the straight

Corrosion
Affects only metals
Requires the presence of an electrolyte
(normally water), potential differences
between metals to allow flow of current
Chemical change in which body of
metal loses atoms - when repeated
millions of times, loss of material can
be observed as corrosion

Corrosion
Rate of corrosion depends on:
Stress in material
Strength of electrolyte (pH value)
Environment and exposure (heat accelerates corrosion)
Reactivity of metal
Metal impurities

Can be observed by:

Localised pitting in surface of material
Overall thinning of material

Can be detected by discoloration or NDT methods

Corrosion
Corrosion removes material, so there is
less component to carry the stress it was
designed to take
Protection:
Control environment
Selection of corrosion resistant material
Protect metal with coating
Sacrificial anode of magnesium, aluminium or
zinc which is dissolved instead of the
component

Wear
Can be produced by:
Scuffing
Lack of lubrication between moving parts.
Movement of parts causes friction

Abrasion
Occurs when small components of foreign material which is harder
than component get between moving parts e.g. sand particles surface then becomes scored

Pitting
Combination of above
Particles produced during scuffing become detached and hardened,
becoming the equivalent of foreign particles and cause abrasion

Creep
When a material is under stress near to its
elastic limit, it undergoes a process of
plastic deformation known as creep
Extent to which creep acts is dependant on:
Time (creep is a slow process)
Temperature (creep accelerated in high
temperatures)

Not a true mode of failure as failure is often

either brittle or ductile

Preventing Failure in
Design
HAZOPS, FMEA etc.
Incorporation of Safety Factors
Correct selection of materials
Removal of points of weakness
Remove sharp edges
Increase amount of material where
slots or holes are needed

Testing and Quality

Assurance
Checks at each stage of a process
Management process to ensure the
checks are carried out and recorded
System is probably based on the BS
ISO9000 Series of documents
detailing quality assurance
Records are important in the event of
failure

Preventing Failure in Use

Use within manufacturers stated
parameters
Specific maintenance e.g.
lubrication
Non-destructive testing

Failure Investigation
Techniques
Collection of samples
Fault Tree Analysis
Accident Investigation:
Gather samples of failed material
Look closely at failed surfaces
Record information
Lab analysis may be necessary

NDT
Test integrity of material without destroying
components
Types of NDT:
Visual inspection
Penetrant inspection
Magnetic inspection
Radiography
Ultrasonic testing
Eddy current testing
Electrical resistivity
Thermal imaging

Summary of
NDT techniques

Visual Inspection
Use naked eye, microscope or
magnifying glass
Requires good light source
Surface may require cleaning
Cheap and easy but applies to
surface defects only

Penetrant Inspection
Uses dye penetrant to highlight
defects for visual inspection
Only relates to surface defects
Easy to use off-site as dyes are in
aerosol cans

Magnetic Inspection
Component is magnetised and magnetic
particles are applied
Any defect will show as it distorts the
magnetic field and the particles lie
differently
Only works on materials with magnetic
properties
Detects surface cracks and sub-surface
cracks close to the surface

Radiography
Gamma or X-rays are passed through
material and onto a strip of film
Radiation triggers reaction in film
which, when developed, shows where
material is sound and where defects
exist
Gives permanent record
Radiation hazard present

Ultrasonic Testing
Uses generator transmitting ultrasound
waves into material and detecting them
when reflected
Equipment usually hand-held
Results need to be interpreted by skilled
operatives
Can detect defects within the material
Can be used on metallic and non-metallic
objects

Electrical Resistivity
A property of metallic materials is
that electrical resistance can alter
when subjected to forces
Uses a small loop of wire attached
to the object (strain gauge)
Can be used to monitor situation
over long periods

Thermal Imaging
Cameras that can detect heat and show
small variations onto colour screen
Main use it to determine if a part is
running hot I.e. lacking lubrication or
rubbing where it isnt supposed to
Cameras are small
Only provides a snapshot
Comparison between pictures is difficult
by eye, but computer can be used

Previous Exam Questions

Explain the purpose of non-destructive testing (NDT) on
items of plant (2 marks)
Other than visual inspection, outline the principles,
benefits and limitations of two NDT techniques
(8
marks)
A serious accident occurred when a threaded steel rod in
the braking mechanism of a hoist failed. An investigation
revealed a fatigue failure of the rod.
Describe the mechanisms and characteristics of fatigue failure (6)
Outline the factors that may contribute to such a failure (6)
Describe the measures that could have been taken which might
have prevented the failure (8 marks)