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7th Meeting

Physical
phenomenon

Measurement
Output

Measurement output:
interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding
the sensor
compound response of multiple inputs
Measurement errors:
System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and
the approximation, can be corrected by calibration
Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be
reduced by averaging.

Sensor technology;
Sensor data collection topologies;
Data communication;
Power supply;
Data synchronization;
Environmental parameters and
influence;
Remote data analysis.

Transducer is a device which transforms


energy from one type to another, even if both
energy types are in the same domain.
Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical,

chemical, magnetic, optical and thermal.

Transducer can be further divided into Sensors,


which monitors a system and Actuators, which
impose an action on the system.
Sensors are devices which monitor a parameter of a

system, hopefully without disturbing that


parameter.

Classification based on physical phenomena


Mechanical: strain gage, displacement (LVDT), velocity

(laser vibrometer), accelerometer, tilt meter, viscometer,


pressure, etc.
Thermal: thermal couple
Optical: camera, infrared sensor
Others

Classification based on measuring mechanism

Resistance sensing, capacitance sensing, inductance

sensing, piezoelectricity, etc.

Materials capable of converting of one form of


energy to another are at the heart of many sensors.
Invention of new materials, e.g., smart materials, would

permit the design of new types of sensors.

Zhang & Aktan, 2005

Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable


of a physical system or an environment
Classification of Sensors
Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain,
rotation velocity, acceleration, pressure,
force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage,
current, frequency phase; visual/images, light;
magnetism.
Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value

Accuracy: error between the result of a


measurement and the true value being
measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of
measure that a device can make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change
in the output signal to a small change in
input physical signal. Slope of the inputoutput fit line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of
the sensor to output the same value for
the same input over a number of trials

True value

measurement

Precision without
accuracy

Accuracy without
precision

Precision and
accuracy

Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable


input amplitude to minimum input amplitude, i.e.
D.R. = 20 log (Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.)
dB
Linearity: the deviation of the output from a bestfit straight line for a given range of the sensor
Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The
relationship between physical input signal and
electrical output signal, which may constitute a
complete description of the sensor characteristics.
Bandwidth: the frequency range between the
lower and upper cutoff frequencies, within which the
sensor transfer function is constant gain or linear.
Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that
causes random fluctuation in the output value

Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make


sensors function, such as electro-optics, electromagnetic,
piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet.
Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of
physical variables.
Size: The physical volume of sensors.
Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time;
continuous or discrete/analog or digital.
Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and
decision-making.
Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating
vs. just receiving signals.
Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the
disturbance in environment.
Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough
for its operation conditions

Foil strain gauge

Least expensive
Widely used
Not suitable for long distance
Electromagnetic Interference
Sensitive to moisture & humidity

Vibration wire strain gauge


Determine strain from freq. of AC signal
Bulky

Fiber optic gauge

Immune to EM and electrostatic noise


Compact size
High cost
Fragile

Resistive Foil Strain Gage

Technology well developed; Low cost


High response speed & broad frequency

bandwidth
A wide assortment of foil strain gages
commercially available
Subject to electromagnetic (EM) noise,
interference, offset drift in signal.
Long-term performance of adhesives
used for bonding strain gages is
questionable

Vibrating wire strain gages can NOT


be used for dynamic application
because of their low response
speed.
Optical fiber strain sensor

Piezoelectric Strain Sensor


Piezoelectric ceramic-based or Piezoelectric polymer-based

(e.g., PVDF)
Very high resolution (able to measure nanostrain)
Excellent performance in ultrasonic frequency range, very high
frequency bandwidth; therefore very popular in ultrasonic
applications, such as measuring signals due to surface wave
propagation
When used for measuring plane strain, can not distinguish the
strain in X, Y direction
Piezoelectric ceramic is a brittle material (can not measure
large deformation)

Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Piezoelectric accelerometer
Nonzero lower cutoff frequency (0.1 1 Hz for

5%)
Light, compact size (miniature accelerometer
weighing 0.7 g is available)
Measurement range up to +/- 500 g
Less expensive than capacitive accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 5 100 mv/g
Broad frequency bandwidth (typically 0.2 5 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 150 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Capacitive accelerometer

Good performance over low frequency range, can

measure gravity!
Heavier (~ 100 g) and bigger size than piezoelectric
accelerometer
Measurement range up to +/- 200 g
More expensive than piezoelectric accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 10 1000 mV/g
Frequency bandwidth typically from 0 to 800 Hz
Operating temperature: -65 120 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Metal foil strain-gage based (load cell)

Good in low frequency response


High load rating
Resolution lower than piezoelectricity-based
Rugged, typically big size, heavy weight

Courtesy of Davidson Measurement

Piezoelectricity based (force sensor)


lower cutoff frequency at 0.01 Hz
can NOT be used for static load measurement
Good in high frequency
High resolution
Limited operating temperature (can not be used for

high temperature applications)


Compact size, light

Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential


Transformer):
Inductance-based ctromechanical

sensor
Infinite resolution

limited by external electronics

Limited frequency bandwidth (250 Hz

typical for DC-LVDT, 500 Hz for AC-LVDT)


No contact between the moving core
and coil structure
no friction, no wear, very long operating
lifetime

Accuracy limited mostly by linearity


0.1%-1% typical
Models with strokes from mms to 1 m

available

Photo courtesy of MSI

Linear Potentiometer
Resolution (infinite), depends on?
High frequency bandwidth (> 10 kHz)
Fast response speed
Velocity (up to 2.5 m/s)
Low cost
Photo courtesy of Duncan Electronics
Finite operating life (2 million cycles) due to

contact wear
Accuracy: +/- 0.01 % - 3 % FSO
Operating temperature: -55 ~ 125 C

Magnetostrictive Linear Displacement Transducer


Exceptional performance for long stroke position

measurement up to 3 m
Operation is based on accurately measuring the distance
from a predetermined point to a magnetic field produced
by a movable permanent magnet.
Repeatability up to 0.002% of the measurement range.
Resolution up to 0.002% of full scale range (FSR)
Relatively low frequency bandwidth (-3dB at 100 Hz)
Very expensive
Operating temperature: 0 70 C

Photo courtesy of Schaevitz

Differential Variable Reluctance Transducers


Relatively short stroke
High resolution
Non-contact between the measured object and sensor
Type of Construction

Standard
tubular

Fixing Mode

by 8mm
diameter

Total Measuring Range 2(+/-1)mm


Pneumatic Retraction

No

Repeatability

0.1um

Operating
Temperature Limits

-10 to +65
degrees C

Courtesy of Microstrain, Inc.

Scanning Laser Vibrometry


No physical contact with the test object; facilitate remote,

mass-loading-free vibration measurements on targets


measuring velocity (translational or angular)
automated scanning measurements with fast scanning speed
However, very expensive (> $120K)

Photo courtesy of Bruel & Kjaer

Photo courtesy of Polytec

References
Structural health monitoring using scanning laser

vibrometry, by L. Mallet, Smart Materials &


Structures, vol. 13, 2004, pg. 261
the technical note entitled Principle of
Vibrometry from Polytec

Shock Pressure Sensor

Measurement range up to 69 MPa (10

ksi)
High response speed (rise time < 2
sec.)
High frequency bandwidth (resonant
frequency up to > 500 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 to 130 C
Light (typically weighs ~ 10 g)

Shock Accelerometer

Measurement range up to +/- 70,000 g


Frequency bandwidth typically from 0.5

30 kHz at -3 dB
Operating temperature: -40 to 80 C
Light (weighs ~ 5 g)

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Inertial Gyroscope (e.g., http://www.xbow.com)


used to measure angular rates and X, Y, and Z acceleration.

Tilt Sensor/Inclinometer (e.g.,


http://www.microstrain.com)
Tilt sensors and inclinometers generate an artificial horizon

and measure angular tilt with respect to this horizon.

Rotary Position Sensor (e.g., http://www.msiusa.com)


includes potentiometers and a variety of magnetic and

capacitive technologies. Sensors are designed for angular


displacement less than one turn or for multi-turn
displacement.
Photo courtesy of MSI and Crossbow

What is MEMS?
Acronym for Microelectromechanical Systems
MEMS is the name given to the practice of making and
combining miniaturized mechanical and electrical
components. K. Gabriel, SciAm, Sept 1995.
Synonym to:
Micromachines (in Japan)
Microsystems technology (in Europe)
Leverage on existing IC-based fabrication techniques (but
now extend to other non IC techniques)
Potential for low cost through batch fabrication
Thousands of MEMS devices (scale from ~ 0.2 m to 1
mm) could be made simultaneously on a single silicon
wafer

Co-location of sensing,
computing, actuating,
control, communication &
power on a small chip-size
device
High spatial functionality and
fast response speed
Very high precision in

manufacture
miniaturized components
improve response speed and
reduce power consumption

Courtesy of A.P. Pisano, DARPA

Miniaturization
micromachines (sensors and actuators) can

handle microobjects and move freely in small


spaces

Multiplicity
cooperative work from many small micromachines

may be best way to perform a large task


inexpensive to make many machines in parallel

Microelectronics
integrate microelectronic control devices with

sensors and actuators

Fujita, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 86, No 8

Capacitive MEMS
accelerometer

High precision dual axis

accelerometer with signal


conditioned voltage outputs,
all on a single monolithic IC
Sensitivity from 20 to 1000
mV/g
High accuracy
High temperature stability
Low power (less than 700 uA
typical)
5 mm x 5 mm x 2 mm LCC
package
Low cost ($5 ~ $14/pc. in
Yr. 2004)
Courtesy of Analog Devices, Inc.

Piezoresistive MEMS accelerometer


Operating Principle: a proof mass attached to a silicon

housing through a short flexural element. The


implantation of a piezoresistive material on the upper
surface of the flexural element. The strain experienced
by a piezoresistive material causes a position change of
its internal atoms, resulting in the change of its
electrical resistance
low-noise property at high frequencies

Courtesy of JP Lynch, U Mich.

MEMS dust here has the same scale as a


single dandelion seed - something so small
and light that it literally floats in the air.

Source: Distributed MEMS: New Challenges for Computation, by


A.A. BERLIN and K.J. GABRIEL, IEEE Comp. Sci. Eng., 1997

Reference
Zhang, R. and Aktan, E., Design consideration for
sensing systems to ensure data quality, Sensing
issues in Civil Structural Health Monitoring, Eded by
Ansari, F., Springer, 2005, P281-290

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