HV Engineering

High Voltage Engineering
LECTURE 9 & 10
Measurement of High-Voltages
Measurement of High Voltages

Types of Voltages to be measured
i. A.C.H.V
ii. D.C.H.V
iii. Impulse/Transien H.V
t

Summary.
i)
A.C.H.V
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Electrostatic Voltmeter.
Spheregaps.
Uniform field Gaps.
Milliammeter in Series with Resistance.
Series Capacitance Voltmeters.
Potential Dividers (resistance or
Capacitance type).
Oscilloscope (CRO)
Potential Transformers.
3
Summary.
ii) D.C.H.V
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Electrostatic Voltmeter.
Spheregaps.
Uniform field Gaps.
series resistance mircoammeters.
Resistance potential Dividers.
Generating Voltmeter.
Series Impedance Ammeter.
Oscilloscope (CRO).
4
Summary.
iii) Transient / Impulses High Voltage.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Sphere Gaps.
Uniform field Gaps.
Oscilloscope (CRO). With delay
Cable.
Potential dividers.
Electrostatic Voltmeters
Pointer
Scale
Fixed Electrode
Spring
Gap
H.V
Voltmeter to measure AC + DC voltage, but not

Impulse/Transient voltages.
The mechanical force between two charged electrodes
has frequently been used for the measurement of high
voltages and the attracted disc electrometer designed by
Lord Kelvin is one of the first instruments based on this
principle.
6
An electrostatic voltmeter consists essentially of a pair of
parallel plane disc electrodes separated by a small
distance. The moving disc is surrounded by a fixed guardring and the two are at the same potential. This
arrangement makes the electrostatic field uniform in the
central portion of the gap between the moving and fixed
discs.

1.
The force on the disc is given by

2
Where
d
282
F
2
5l
V
d = diameter of the moving disc, cm,

l = gap length, cm,
V = potential difference between the electrodes, kV.

1.
In order to measure a given voltage with great precision,

the disc diameter has to be increased and the gap length
decreased. An increase in the disc diameter necessitates
a corresponding increase in the diameter of the guardring and of the opposing electrode. A decrease in the
electrode spacing reduces the working voltage in order
that the gradient remains below 5 kV/cm for voltmeters
operating in atmospheric air.
1.
The main difference between the various types of electrostatic voltmeters is the manner in which the restoring
torque is obtained and the movement of the disc
indicated. In the simplest method the restoring torque is
obtained by a spring control which actuates a pointer
moving on the scale of the instrument.
10

1.
Electrostatic voltmeters for higher ranges have been constructed with compressed gas as the insulating medium
between the electrodes. One such instrument for
voltages up to 600 kV has been developed by

Bocker. The insulating medium is generally carbon dioxide
gas at a pressure of 15 atm. Also vacuum has been
employed as the insulating medium in voltmeters which give
working gradients, in the range of 100 kV/cm, and the
instrument is, therefore, smaller than an open-air instrument
of the same voltage rating.
11

1.
Voltmeter using atmospheric air have been

made for suse up to 400-kV peak and those with
compressed gas up to 600-kV peak. The accuracy
of these instruments is about 0.1 %.
Electrostatic voltmeters absorb no appreciable power
especially in the case of direct voltages. After a
momentary charge flow of a few micro coulombs only the
insulation leakage current will flow, which should be very
small. The insulation resistance is, however,
affected by humidity and the current consumption will
increase with increasing humidity.

12

1.
On alternating voltages there is a small current

consumption which is proportional to the frequency, and
consequently such instruments are not suitable for high
frequencies (above few megacycles).
As the operating force in such instruments is proportional
to the square of the applied voltage, the scale is nonuniform and it is not possible to obtain the same
accuracy of observation throughout the working range.
Instruments which cover a wide range of voltage
measurements are provided with different sizes of the
movable discs for different ranges.
13

1.
Bowdler designed an attracted disc voltmeter, operating

in compressed nitrogen at a pressure of 150 Ib / in2, or a
mixture of nitrogen and arcton-6 at a pressure of 50 Ib/in2
for a voltage range up to 350 kV (peak). The accuracy of
the instrument was tested at various voltages and was
about 1 % at 1 kV and 0.1 % at 30 kV and above.
14

1.
The author has estimated errors arising from factors such

as non-uniformity of field, parallelism and flatness of
electrodes, dimensions of electrodes and measurement
of attractive force. The resultant error was found to be
smallest for the largest spacing and the highest electric
strength between the electrodes.
15

1.
Broadbent, Cooper and Elliott(S) have recently described

an attracted disc voltmeter which measures voltages up
to 30 kV to accuracy within 0.25 %. The principle of
operation of the voltmeter is illustrated in Fig. 2. The
electrodes consist of a movable circular disc surrounded
by a fixed guard ring. Both the guard ring and the
movable disc are placed opposite a parallel plane
electrode terminated in curved edges.
16

1.
Fig: 2.
17

1.
The disc is attached to one arm of a mechanical balance

and the guard ring is earthed while the voltage to be
measured is applied to the lower plane electrode. The
control torque is obtained from the force of attraction
between a coil attached to the other arm of the balance
and a permanent magnet.
The balance arm carries a small mirror which reflects a
beam of light on to a pair of photoconductive cells. The
system is adjusted in such a way that when the balance
arm tilts, the spot of light covers more of one cell and less
of the other according to the direction of deflection of the
balance arm.
18

1.
This causes an unbalance in a bridge circuit containing

the two photoconductive cells. The out-of-balance voltage
is used to control the current through the coil and the
system acts as an error controlled closed-loop electrooptical circuit. A fixed relationship exists between the coil
current and applied voltage, and thus the unknown
voltage can be read directly.
The instrument was calibrated absolutely by balancing
known weights against the attractive force between the
electrodes produced by known voltages.
19

1.
The attractive force corresponding to any given coil

current was first determined by applying weights to the
disc electrode in the absence of voltage. The coil current
was simultaneously measured to within 0.02 % by means
of a d.c. potentiometer. The weights were then removed
and the voltage to be measured was applied and the coil
current measured.
Knowing the relation between the coil current and the
attractive force, the voltage was determined absolutely by
the use of the equation relating the electrostatic force and
the dimensions of the electrode.
20
2.
Sphere Gaps
Used for measurement of A.C, D.C and Impulse voltage.

H.V
Sphere gap
Sphere gaps are commonly used for the measurement of

the peak value of high voltages and as a result of
extensive investigations calibration tables giving
breakdown voltages corresponding to various gap lengths
for different sizes of spheres have been prepared.
21

2.
Sphere Gaps
The calibration data recommended in the British Standard

Rules for Measurement of Voltage with Sphere Gaps,
thereafter referred to as B.S. 358, and are included in
Tables 1 and 2.
22

Tables 1.
2.
Sphere Gaps
23

2.
Sphere Gaps
24

2.
Sphere Gaps
Tables 1.
25

2.
Sphere Gaps
26

2.
Sphere Gaps
Tables 2.
27

2.
Sphere Gaps
28

2.
Sphere Gaps
For alternating and 1/50 sec impulse voltages for
spacing up to 0.5D (sphere diameter) the tables are
considered to be accurate within 3%.
Values in the tables for spacing between 0.5D and 0.75D
are regarded as being of doubtful accuracy.
For direct voltage measurement in the absence of
excessive dust the results are considered accurate
within 5% for spacing not greater than 0.4D.
29

2.
Sphere Gaps
The mechanism of electric breakdown in air was

discussed previously. The factors which effect the
breakdown voltage and the procedure of measurement
will be discussed now.
The spheres maybe made of aluminum, brass, bronze or
light alloys and the surface should be free from
irregularities.
The spheres should be cleaned immediately before use,
otherwise dust or deposited moisture may affect the
accuracy of measurement.
For spheres of a particular diameter, the field in the
gap
becomes less uniform as the gap length increases from a
sphere radius to a sphere diameter. B.S. 358: 1960
recommend that the spacing should exceed a sphere
30
not
radius.

2.
Sphere Gaps
a)
Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects
The accuracy of measurement of voltage with sphere gap

is considerably affected by earthed objects around the
gap.
Kuffel and Husbands have studied the influence of
nearby earthed objects on the direct voltage breakdown
of horizontal gaps.
They studied the effect of surrounding the gap by a
cylindrical metal cage and found that the breakdown
voltage was lowered appreciably, particularly when the
gap length exceeded a sphere radius.
31
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 4.
B
V m log
D
C
32
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 4.
33

2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
A similar reduction was observed when an earthed

conducting plane was placed parallel to the gap axis. This
effect is shown in Fig.5 where a reference clearance of
13.4D was taken.
The clearance A to the plane had a very small effect
when the distance was l0D or greater. At a clearance of
9.8D the breakdown voltage was reduced by 0.2-0.7 %.
34
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 5(a).
35
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 5(b).
36
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
A comparison of results for sphere spacings larger than

the sphere radius showed that the ratio of the changes in
the breakdown voltage, caused by a cylindrical shield and
by an equally distant plane, respectively, varied from
about 1.1 to 1.8 when the clearance was varied from 4D
to 12D.
The results showed that the effect of objects surrounding
a sphere gap on the breakdown voltage can be made
relatively small by bringing an earthed plane sufficiently
near to the gap. Then the plane will have a greater and
more consistent influence on the breakdown voltage than
the combined effect of a number of objects which are at a
comparable or greater distance from the gap.
37
2.
a)
Sphere Gaps
It was pointed out that the accuracy with which voltages

may be measured by a sphere gap depends on the
accuracy of the accepted calibrations. Thus the clearance
conditions for the calibration should be specified within
very close limits although the limits may be extended
when the gap is used for voltage measurement.
Table:3 gives values, suggested by Kuffel and Husbands,
for suitable standard clearances and the use of the same
standard clearances is recommended for all sizes of
spheres. An accuracy of 1% is claimed to be obtainable,
as far as clearance effect is concerned, by observing
these clearance limits.
38
a)
2.
Sphere Gaps
Ef of Nearby Earthed Objects
fe 3
Table:
ct
39

2.
b)
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The breakdown voltage of an air gap is affected by the
atmospheric conditions and a correction factor has beenworked out to convert the breakdown voltage to the
standard atmospheric conditions of 760 mm Hg pressure
and 200C temperature. The breakdown voltage V at a
relative air density , and a voltage V at standard
n
atmospheric conditions are related by:
V KVn
40
2.
b)
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
Where K is a factor depending upon
The air density is expressed as
p
293
760 273
Where
p = air pressure in mm Hg,
t = air temperature in centigrade.
41
b)

2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
Table5. gives the values of K for different values of .
42
b)

2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The B.S. 358: 1960 takes no account of the effect of
humidity on the flashover voltage of sphere gaps,
although it is indicated that an error of up to 3 % could
arise from differences in the air humidity.
Kuffel has studied the influence of humidity on the breakdown voltage of air gaps using 2.0, 6.25, 12.5 and 25-cm
diameter spheres and uniform field electrodes. With
sphere gaps, the influence of humidity varied with the
sphere diameter and with gap lengths. Fig: 6 shows the
percentage increase in breakdown voltage when the
water-vapour pressure was changed from 0 to 17 mm Hg.
43
2.
b)
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
Fig: 6.
44
b)

2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The humidity effect increased with gap length until a

maximum effect was reached at a well defined gap
length. Further increases in the gap length gave a
reduced effect, but the larger spheres gave an effect
which again increased with still longer gaps. The
observed maximum change was smallest with the 2-cm
diameter spheres; it increased with the sphere size and
was largest for uniform field electrodes.
45
b)

2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The maximum rate of change in breakdown voltage with
humidity was found to be in the region 0-4 mm Hg and
there after the change was slightly less.
Furthermore, the relationship between the breakdown
voltage and the humidity between 4 and 17 mm Hg was
substantially linear for spacings less than that which gave
the maximum humidity effect.
The relationship was less linear at the larger spacings.
46

b)
2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The effect of humidity on the breakdown voltage with 25-cm
diameter spheres was also studied with alternating voltage
over the range 6-15 mm Hg of water vapour. Fig: 7 shows
the two sets of results for a l-cm gap, and it can be seen
that the alternating breakdown voltages were in general
slightly lower than the direct voltage values but the
difference did not exceed 0.5 %.
47
2.
b)
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
Fig: 7
48
b)

2.
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The breakdown voltage/humidity relationships (Fig.6)
display three main features:
1)
The breakdown voltage increases with the partial

pressure of water vapour.
2)
The total voltage change for a given humidity

change increases with gap length.
3)
The humidity effect increases with the size of

spheres and is largest for uniform field electrodes.
49
2.
b)
Sphere Gaps
Effect of Humidity
The first two effects may be attributed to the relative
values of ionization and attachment coefficients in air of
different humidities and at different voltage gradients. The
increase of humidity effect with the size of spheres was
explained by Kuffel) by taking into account the distribution
of the ionization and attachment coefficients along the
axis of the sphere gaps.
An analysis of the distribution of these coefficients
showed that the maximum effect for different sizes of
sphere occurred when the minimum values of the
effective ionization coefficient ( - n)
in the middle of
min
the gaps were approximately the same.
50

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
Effect of Irradiation and of Polarity
The reliability of the sphere gap can be increased by

irradiating the spheres with ultraviolet light. Irradiation
increases the availability of the initiating electrons and
therefore reduces. the statistical time lag of breakdown.
Experiments have shown that irradiation becomes
necessary when voltages lower than 50 kV are being
measured and also when spheres of 12.5 cm diameter
and less are used for the measurement.
51

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
Irradiation can be obtained by placing a quartz-mercury

vapour lamp at a distance B given in Table:4. A more
effective source of obtaining irradiation is by inserting a
capsule of 0,5 mg of radium inside the high-voltage
sphere close to the sparking-point.
Occasionally light from another spark-usually the trigger
gap of an impulse generator-produces the required
irradiation.
52

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
The influence of irradiation on the breakdown of direct

and alternating voltages was studied by Edwards and
Smee and the results for gaps between 1.3-cm diameter
spheres are shown in Fig.8.
When the gap was irradiated by 0.5 mg of radium, the
breakdown voltage became consistent. Irradiation,
however, reduces the breakdo voltage slightly.
wn
53
2.
c)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 8.
54

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
Th effect of irradiation on direct voltage calibration of

e
sphere
gaps was studied by Kuffel. The gap was
irradiated by placing 0.5 mg of radium inside one sphere
of approximate thickness of 1 mm of copper.
Fig:9 shows the percentage lowering of breakdown
gap
voltages of various
lengths.
55
2.
c)
Sphere Gaps
Fig: 9.
56

2.
c)
Sphere Gaps
The effect is most marked with 2-cm diameter spheres at

small spacings where a reduction in breakdown voltage
of about 4.5 % was obtained for a gap length of about 1
mm.
A second maximum was observed at about 1 cm spacing
and thereafter the effect of irradiation steadily diminishes
with gap lengths. The gap length at which the maximum
effect is obtained varies according to the size of spheres
and generally increases with sphere diameter.
57

2.
c)
Sphere Gaps
Alternating voltage breakdowns were found to be less

affected by irradiation as compared with direct voltages. A
reduction of 1.5 % in the alternating voltage breakdown
was observed for a gap length of 2 cm of a 6'25-cm
diameter sphere gap.
The corresponding reduction under direct voltage was 2.5
%. These findings supported the recommendation made
in B.S. 358: 1960.
58

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
When impulse voltages are measured with sphere gaps,

it becomes more important to eliminate the statistical time
lag. Under proper irradiation a gap may break down if the
peak voltage exceeds the d.c. breakdown value.
However, in the case of poorly irradiated gap, the peak
value of the applied impulse has to be increased to cause
breakdown of the gap.
59

2.
Sphere Gaps
c)
the
flashover
Several
workers
have
studied
characteristics of sphere gaps under po frequency
and impulse voltages. These studies showwer
that for shorter
spacings the breakdown curves coincided, but in longer
gaps the positive impulse breakdown curve rose above
the negative impulse breakdown curve by an amount
depending upon the sphere diameter and ga length.
p
60

2.
c)
Sphere Gaps
Th source of irradiation was the illuminating spark

e
caused
by the discharge of a 0.1-F capacitance at 10 kV
through a gap between zinc spheres. Fig: 15 shows the
lowering of breakdown voltage as a function of the
distance between the gap and the illuminating source.
The gap lengths are adjusted such that the d.c.
breakdown voltages are 5 kV and 10 kV respectively.
61
2.
d)
Sphere Gaps
Procedure of Measurement
When measurements with direct and alternating voltages are

made, a resistance of 100 k to 1M should be placed in
series with the sphere gap. This will reduce the pitting of the
spheres and damp the superimposed oscillations which may
cause erratic flashover of the gap.
Protecting resistance becomes more important in the
presence of any discharge in the specimen or in th test
circuit, as these discharges may produce transiente overvoltages.
If the circuit is free from discharges, the value of the series
resistance may be reduced within the limits mentioned above.
62

2.
Sphere Gaps
d)
Procedure of Measurement
To prevent oscillations in the sphere-gap circuit under

impulse voltage measurement a non-inductive resistance
of not more than 500 should be used.
When measurements of direct and alternating voltages
are made, the applied voltage is increased gradually until
the flash over of the gap takes place. Generally the mean
value of three successive readings agreeing within 3 % is
taken to be the breakdown value of the gap.
63
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
For the measurement of A.C, D.C and Impulse

voltage.
Sphere gap, though extensively used for high-voltage
measurements, produces a field which is uniform over only a
very limited region of the gap namely along the axis of the
gap and it is not possible to ensure that sparking would
always take place along the uniform field region.
Rogowski presented designs for profiles for electrodes
giving uniform field for voltages up to 600 KV.
64
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
It has been shown theoretically that the field between two

equal spheres is very nearly uniform for values of
spacing/radius ratio less than about 1/10 and the
accurate theoretical interpretation of the experimental
results is possible only under this condition.
If the spark takes place in a uniform field, the sparkover
voltage could be defined by an equation of the form:
V = AS+B S
65
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Where A and B are constants, and V is the sparkover

voltage for a gap length S.
This limitation of the sphere gap led to the development
of uniform-field gap and one of the early designs was put
forward by Stephenson.
Fig:16 shows the design of the electrodes used, for
measurement of 50 c/s alternating voltages up to 400 kV
(peak).
The
portion
AC is
plane
66
and is
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Fig: 16.
67
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
To avoid sparking at the edges, the curvature from B to E

and D to F should be of continuously increasing
magnitude. Under this arrangement, it was found
experimentally that sparking always occurred in the
uniform-field region of the gap for all spacings up to 16
cm under normal atmospheric conditions.
From a theoretical analysis of the experimental results,
Stephenson has shown that the breakdown voltage and
spacing are related, at 25C and 760 mm Hg by S is the
gap length in centimetres.
v = 24.4S+7.50 S kV(peak)
68
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
It has also been shown that the sparking potential is a

function of both the spacing S and the gas density , so
that the density correction factor at a given density varies
with the spacing, and the above relation is accordingly
modified as:
V = 24.4S + 7.50 (S)1/2 KW (Peak) [Stephenson)
Where e is the gas density which is unity at normal
atmospheric conditions.
69
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Bruce has also studied the characteristics of uniform-field

electrode for power frequency alternating voltages up to
315 kV. A half contour of one of the electrodes used by
Bruce is shown in Fig.17. The flat portion AB is of a
diameter not less than the maximum gap length to be
used. BC is a sine curve, based on the axes OB and OC,
such that XY = OC sin (BX/ BOX/2). CD forms the arc of
circle with centre at O.
70
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Fig: 17
71
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
In order to maintain the uniformity of the field at different gap

lengths, different pairs of electrodes were used.
The diameters of the flat surfaces were 2.25, 4.4 and 7.8 in.
for the measurement of voltages up to 140, 280 and 420 kV
respectively. The corresponding overall diameters of the
electrodes were 4.5, 9.0 and 15.0 in.
Using these electrodes for voltages from 9 to 315 kV(peak),
Bruce has shown that the breakdown voltage of a gap of
length S cm in air at 25C and 760 mm Hg is within 0.2 %
of the value given by the relation
V = 24.22S + 6.08
(peak).
S kV
Bruce
72
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The influence of nearby objects on the breakdown has

also been studied by Bruce and he recommended that
the clearance between the edges of the electrodes and
the nearest earthed conductor in the plane of the gap
should be .wore than four times the maximum gap length.
The clearance between the edges of the electrodes and a
discharging conductor should' be not less than ten times
the maximum spacing.
To account for the air density the above expression
becomes
V = 24.22S + 6.08 (S)1/2
73
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The effect of humidity on uniform field gaps was studied

by Ritz who observed an increase of about 2 % in the
breakdown of a 1 cm air gap when the water vapour
pressure varied from 10 to 25 mm Hg. He suggested a
relationship of the following form.
74
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Kohrmann observed a greater humidity effect and found

that the breakdown voltage of 0'5-cm gap increased by
2.4 % when the water vapour pressure was increased
from zero to 10 mm Hg.
Kuffel has studied the
effect of humidity for a
number of gap lengths.
Fig: 18 illustrates the
percentage
gaps
up to 2 increase
cm increases
in by 4-5.5% at 17 mm Hg.
breakdown
The
change in voltage
voltageis not linearly related to either the
when humidity
humidity
for a given
was
gap length, or the gap length for
variedhumidity.
from 0ato
given
17 mm Hg, and it is seen that the breakdown voltage for
75
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Fig: 18
76
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The voltage change is, however, nearly linearly related to

the humidity between the range 4-17 mm Hg when the
gap length is constant. Between thes humidity limits the
e gaps, giving 0.19
voltage increase is greater for longer
%/mm Hg for a 0.5-cm spacing and 0.27 %/mm Hg for a
2-cm gap.
The increase in breakdown voltage with the quantity of
water vapour may be explained partly by considering the
higher electron attachment in moist air.
77
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The problem has been discussed by Kuffel and an

estimation of the increase in the breakdown voltage gave
a reasonable agreement with the observed values over a
range of gaps from 0.5 to 2.0 cm.
An increase with gap length in the voltage change for a
given humidity change also follows from electronattachment considerations. The ionization coefficient
varies more rapidly with the field gradient than does the
attachment coefficient.
The field gradient at breakdown decreases with
increasing gap length and consequently the influence of
the attachment coefficient on the ionization efficiency will
be greater for longer gaps.
78
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Prasad and Craggs have recently shown that the rate of

increase of the attachment coefficient is considerably
greater than that of the ionization coefficient as the partial
pressure of water vapour is increased.
In addition, the secondary ionization coefficient was
observed to decrease with increasing water vapour
pressure. In consequence the breakdown voltage in
creases with increasing humidity.
79
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Holzer an Ritz studied uniform field breakdown under

d voltages using the electrodes with the profile
alternating
suggested by Rogowski.
The relation between the breakdown voltage and gap
length 8 in cm, at atmospheric conditions, obtained by
Holzer is
V = 23.85S+ 7.85
S kV (peak), Holzer
and that given by Ritz is

V = 24.558+6.66
S kV (peak). Ritz
80
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Results obtained by various workers are given in Table:7

and the values obtained by sphere-gap measurements are
also inserted for comparison.
The discrepancies observed in the
measurements are likely to be due
conditions and the accuracy with which
measured.
results of these
to different test
th voltages were
e
81
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Fig: 17.
82
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
From the experimental results available, it may be

assumed that within the limits of experimental accuracy
no difference has been detecte between the d.c. and
d
a.c. breakdown voltages.
83
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The impulse breakdown characteristics of the uniformfield gap has not yet been studied extensively.
Holzer made a study with impulse voltages of
differentrate of rise and observed an increase of about
4% in the breakdown voltage for a 12-cm gap above the
static breakdown voltage when an impulse voltage of a
rate of rise of 9.3X 108 kV /s was used.
84
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
At smaller gaps the difference became less. Also when

the rate of rise was reduced to 1.6 X 106 kV /s the
impulse values became equal to static breakdown values.
Cooper made measurements by applying recurrently a
voltage impulse of 1 sec front duration and studied the
time intervals between the application of the impulse and
the instant of breakdown.
85
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Rectangular impulses of negative polarity were applied to

a parallel-plate electrode gap at a rate of 400 impulses/so
The maximum amplitude of the voltage was about 25 kV.
The impulse voltages applied to the gap were measured
by means of a cathode-ray oscillograph in conjunction
with a resistance potential divider.
The results of his finding are summarized in Table. 8
which compares the effect of irradiation on breakdown
voltage.
Irradiation of the gap was obtained by inserting a metal
capsule containing 0.2 mg of radium inside the highvoltage electrode.
86
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Table: 8.
87
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The results in Table 5.8 show that for gaps greater than
0.2 cm long, irradiation produced practically no effect on
the breakdown voltage.
88
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
Comparing the uniform-field geometry and the

sphere gap as a standard method of measuring
high voltages, it is readily seen that the former
has certain advantages over the latter. The
breakdown voltage of the uniform-field electrode
can be calculated accurately over a wide range of
gap lengths while there is no accurate
expression by means of which the sparking
voltage is calculable for sphere gaps for all
conditions to an accuracy better than several per
cent.
89
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
The air-density correction factor is a mean value

for the whole range of spacing of the sphere gap
while in the case of uniform-field electrodes it is
a function of both the gas density and the gap
length.
The sphere gap calibration depends on whether
the arrangement is symmetrical or with one
sphere earthed. The uniform-field, however, does
not show any such effect and the breakdown
voltage remains the same whether both
electrodes are insulated or one electrode is
earthed.
90
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
For uniform-field gaps the clearance to nearby

objects is much smaller than is the case of sphere
gaps. The field in the central portion of the uniformfield gap is well shielded against the effect of nearby
objects as compared with sphere gap.
91
3.
Uniform Field Gaps
For uniform-field gaps the clearance to nearby

objects is much smaller than is the case of sphere
gaps. The field in the central portion of the uniformfield gap is well shielded against the effect of nearby
objects as compared with sphere gap.
In spite of a superior performance of the uniform-field
gap, it has not yet replaced the sphere gap as a
standard method of voltage measurement. The
serious practical disadvantages are the need ver
for
y
accurate mechanical finish of the electrodes
and
extremely careful parallel alignment.
92
4.
Ammeter in Series with High

Impedance
H.V
I
R
V
=IR
The effective value of high voltages can be obtained by

measuring the current flowing through a circuit containing
a high series resistance. Neglecting the impedance of the
instrument, the product of the current and the series
resistance gives the unknown voltage.
93
4.
Ammeter in Series with High Impedance
A milliammeter of the dynamometer or thermal type is

commonly used in such measurements; however,
moving-coil instruments can be used for direct voltages
provided the superimposed a.c. ripple is less than 10 %.
Theaccuracy of measurements depends upon the design
of the high-voltage resistor.
These resistors should have negligible resistance
temperature coefficient and should be free from corona
discharges. Also leakage along the supporting structures
should be small. With alternating voltages, the stray
Capacitance of the resistor sections to earth has to be
considered.)
94
4.
Wire-wound resistances have often been used for highvoltage measurements and one such design is due to
Taylor.
One hundred units ( M, 1W) made of Ni-Cr wire were
arranged in twenty sets of 5 units each. Each set was
mounted in a spun aluminium corona shield with an
insulating lid made of hard rubber or pyrex glass. A spring
contact was provided between each resistance set and
the aluminium cover ofthe next set.
95
4.
The resistance units were wound noninductively and the

temperature coefficient was 0.0152 %/C. The
temperature and resistance characteristics of the
determine under the operating
assembly were
d to 1.3 kV / resistor and the
conditions for voltages up
results are reproduced in Fig. 19. The accuracy of
measurement was claimed to be 0.01%.
96
4.
Fig: 19.
97
4.
The length of the wire required becomes very

considerable for resistances of 100 M and above-even
for the finest gauge of the coil remained constant within
0.1 % over long periods. The coil formers are mounted on
an ebonite rod to form a stack shown in Fig.20, and
placed in a container 18 in. high X10 in. diameter.
98
4.
Th unit was tested at 125 kV when the power dissipation

200 W and the oil temperature increased by 40C.
e
shape of the coil former assists in maintaining a
w
steady
circulation of oil. The leakage resistance through
as
the
Th oil and the container was 3 X 1012 which has a
negligible
effect on the total resistance of the unit.
e
The accuracy obtained on 300KV was better than 0.3%.
Owing to the high cost of this instrument, its application is
limited to installations such as high-voltage X-ray therapy,
where a very high accuracy is required.
99
4.
Park has recently described a new design of a standard

resistor capable of measuring high direct voltages very
accurately. It is made up of a large number of 1-M wirewound resistor elements connected in series and
arranged to form a vertical helix.
Each individual resistor element is shielded by a metal
shield which completely encloses the element.
100
4.
Corona formation on the surface of the resistance coil is

thereby prevented. A 100-M unit suitable for 100 kV
working voltage is shown in Fig.21. The high-voltage end
of the resistor is fitted with a large "hat" which, together
with the vertical helical configuration of the resistor unit,
prevents concentration of electric field and corona
formation.
101
4.
Fig: 21
102
5.
Series Capacitance Voltmeters
A method suitable for determining the peak and r.m.S.

value of an alternating voltage is to measure the
current flowing through a capacitor connected to the
high-voltage source.
The current is measured by a rectifier milliammeter
circuit. The circuit of a peak voltmeter described by
Chubb and Fortescue is given in Fig. 22.
Neglecting the rectifier impedance, the instantaneous
current is: i = C(de/dt where e is the instantaneous
voltage and C is )the capacitance. The total charge
through eac rectifier per cycle is:
103
h
5.
Fig: 22.
104
5.
i
Q
dQ
dt
,i c
dv
dt
,eEsin wt,de wECos wt

t
idtC de2
fCE
1
f
4
3 f
cos2 fdt 2CE
3/4 f
1/4 f
105
5.
Where e = E sin 2ft.

The charge per second or the mean current through the
instrument is then 2CEf, where f is the frequency of the
test voltage. The peak voltmeter, therefore, measures the
total voltage swing from positive to negative peak of an
alternating voltage. The chief source of error is the
imperfect rectifier characteristic.
106
5.
In the above treatment, the integration is taken between

the time limits when de/dt has one sign only (positive for
one rectifier and negative for the other), the peak voltage
cannot be measured if there are subsidiary peaks in the
voltage wave.
This method is only applicable when the + ve and - ve
peak heights are equal.
This method is used extensively for measuring the peak
values of power frequency voltages up to about 1000 kV
(r.m.s.), and accuracies of the order of 1 or 2 parts in
1000 can be achieved.
107
5.
The Chubb-Fortescue peak voltmeter described earlier

suffers from two serious drawbacks. These are frequency
dependence of the indication and the error introduced by
heavy discharges on the h.v. system; a less important
shortcoming is the error introduced by multiple peaks in
the voltage waveform.
108
5.
The maximum voltage range of such a voltmeter is limited

by, the peak inverse voltage of the rectifier. Baker has
presented the design of an instrument which includes
rectifiers in a feedback loo and is to a great extent
independent of the rectifier p,
characteristic.
The instrument is particularly applicable in the
measurement of h.v. in the presence of corona discharge.
An outline of the method is shown in Fig. 23.
109
6.
Potential Dividers
Low impedance
Z1
Z2
V2
Dividers for Direct and Alternating Voltages.

Potential divider is, basically, a series combination of a
high and low impedance. The voltage to be measured is
applied across the combination and the drop across the
low-impedance section is measured by means of an
indicating instrument.
110
6.
Potential Dividers
The design of a potential divider is, essentially, the design

of the high-impedance section and high-voltage
resistances described in Section 5.4 (Ammeter in series
with High-Impedance) can be used as a resistance
potential divider.
111
6.
Potential Dividers
A resistance potential divider for the measurement of up

to 1.25 million volts d.c. was described by Kunkte. The
resistance 1500 M,Q was made from 2000 units of
carbon resistances 0.75 M,Q each. Across a tap on the
low voltage end was connected a 1500-V electrostatic
voltmeter. The divider ratio was adjusted at 1:1000 and
the voltmeter scale was marked to read directly 1500 kV.
The resistor was immersed in oil and a pump was used to
maintain a continuous circulation of oil. Under full-load
conditions the resistance value was within 1.5 %. The
accuracy of measurement was about 1 %.
112
6.
Potential Dividers
A very precise potential divider for measurement of direct

current voltages of about 50 kV with an accuracy of
0.01% has been designed by Rymer an Wright. The
effect of leakage currents was eliminatedd partly the
by circuits
use of a comprehensive system of shielding
supplied by an auxilliary network across the main h.t.
supply and partly by the use of a Wheatstone bridge
circuit which enables the potentiometer ratio to be
measured under operating conditions, while the high
potential is applied. The apparatus has been used for
precise measurement of the voltage in experiments on
electron diffraction.
113
6.
Potential Dividers
The elaborations required in the proper design of an a.c.

high-voltage resistor have led to the development of
capacitors which can be used as a high impedance
element, either in a bridge circuit or in a potential divider.
The advantages of a standard air-capacitor over a highvoltage resistor are the relative simplicity of its
construction, the ease with which it may be shielded from
stray capacitance effects, and the absence of heating.
114
7.
Dividers for Impulse Voltages
A divider for recording high transient voltages may consist

of resistors or capacitors or combinations of both. The
essential requirement is that the wave shape of the
voltage to by measured should be faithfully reproduced
on the oscillograph with a reduction ratio which can be
accurately known.
115
7.
The chief sources of error common to all types of dividers

are:
1)
2)
3)
Residual inductance in any resistance or

capacitive element.
Stray capacitance: (a) from any section of the
divider to the high voltage lead, (b) from any
section of the divider to ground and (c) between
sections of the divider.
Impedance drop in the connecting lead between
the divider and the test object.
116
7.
4)
5)
Impedance drop in the ground return lead from

the divider resulting from extraneous ground
currents flowing in this lead.
Oscillations in the divider circuit caused by
capacitance from divider high-voltage terminal to
ground and lead inductance.
117
7.
The effect of residual inductance becomes very

pronounced in the fractional microsecond range, where
the voltage applied to the test object is increasing at a
rapid rate at the instant when flashover occurs. The
current through a resistance potential divider is likewise
increasing at a corresponding rate and the residual
inductance in each element of the divider will generate an
L(dI/dt) voltage which is superimposed upon the IR drop.
118
7.
The simplest type is a resistor divider which is often

acceptable for recording the standard impulse of 1/50
sec wave. When the duration of the surge is less than I
sec a resistor divider may give large errors due to stray
capacitance. The error is a function of the product of the
resistance of the high-voltage arm and the earth
capacitance.
119
7.
The layout of the test object and the divider needs special
attention to minimize the recording error. The test object
is generally located not very close to the divider in order
to avoid the possibility of the divider distorting the field
near the object. Under these circumstances the
inductance of the loop formed by the divider and the
connections to the test object may cause considerable
errors.
120
7.
When the divider is constructed from pure capacitors, the

response is perfect on fast as well as slow transient; the
divider is independent of frequency. An error may be
introduced due to the earth capacitance.
The high cost of pure high-voltage capacitors makes a
resistance divider preferable; the latter, however, is
difficult to shield and its frequency response is limited.
Also the circuit arrangement incorporating a delay cable
introduces complications.
A mixed divider of parallel arrangement can be obtained
by adding a series of capacitors in parallel with resistor
units.
121
7.
This arrangement behaves as a resistor divider for slow

transients and as a capacitor divider for fast surges. The
delay cable, with such a divider, can be terminated with a
resistor.
In the series arrangement of the mixed divider, the resistor
units are connected in series with capacitor units. This
arrangement is suitable for tests involving superimposed
power frequency and surge voltage measurements.
It has the advantage of having finite impedance at infinite
frequency. The response of such an arrangement on fast
surges corresponds to that of a pure resistor divider.
122
7.
One of the simplest types of a divider is a plain resistance

potentiometer connected to a cable as shown in Fig. 24.
If the high-voltage resistance has no distributed capacity
and no self-inductance, the above arrangement will
respond satisfactorily to all transients.
The possible sources of error in a cable type divider such
as shown in Fig. 24 are as follows: (1) the terminal
resistor R Z (surge impedance), due both to errors in
adjustment and to the fact that the concentric cable is not
a true surge impedance invariant to changes of wave
shape; (2) capacitance of the measuring circuit;
123
7.
Fig: 24.
124
8.
Mixed Divider
It can take the form of either parallel or series

arrangement of capacitors and resistors. The equivalent
network of the parallel arrangement is that in which C: is
infinite and its response can be obtained by neglecting
the self-inductance L. From the response terms, too
lengthy to be included here, it can be seen that th
arrangement behaves as a capacitor divider with e
transients and as a resistor divider with slow transients.fas
t
125
8.
Mixed Divider
Fig: 25.
126
8.
Mixed Divider
Fig: 26.
127
9.
Delay Cable
H.V
Z1
Delay Cable
Z2
CRO
The low-voltage arm of a potential divider is connected to

the oscillograph deflection plates by means of a coaxial
cable.
128
9.
Delay Cable
The length of the cable varies between a few meters and

100-200 m, depending upon the time delay required
between the operation of the generator and the arrival of
the signal to the plates.
The two main types are the air-cored cable and the
polythene cable. In air-cored cable, the surge voltage
travels approximately at the speed of light and a cable of
100 m length gives a delay of, 0.333 sec which is
sufficient for the C.R.O. time base to be triggered.
129
9.
Delay Cable
In a polythene cable, the velocity of propagation would be

slower, being inversely proportional to the square root of
the permittivity, and therefore. a shorter length of cable
can be used to provide the same time delay.
The delay cable causes distortion and attenuation in the
recorded wave and a study of the response of air-spaced
and polythene cable shows that, in order to avoid
appreciable errors, air-spaced cable should be used on
fast surges.
130
9.
Delay Cable
An ideal cable is one which has no losses and whose

surge impedance does not vary with frequency. However,
all cables have some attenuation and their surge
impedance varies with frequency. The sources of cable
losses are the resistance of the central conductor and
outer sheath and conductance and dielectric hysteresis in
the insulating medium used.
131
9.
Delay Cable
Losses are usually expressed as attenuation in decibles

per 100 ft at a fixed frequency and in general the
logarithm of attenuation increases directly with the
logarithm of frequency. The error in the peak valu an
d
e
wave form caused by cable attenuation can be calculated
by using the known values of attenuation at various
frequencies.
This method is, however, time consuming and has to
be repeated for each different wave shape of the
applied voltage.
132

HV Engineering

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

HV Engineering

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

High Voltage Engineering

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Voltmeter to measure AC + DC voltage, but not

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

The force on the disc is given by

d = diameter of the moving disc, cm,

Measurement of High Voltages

In order to measure a given voltage with great precision,

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

voltages up to 600 kV has been developed by

Measurement of High Voltages

Voltmeter using atmospheric air have been

increase with increasing humidity.

Measurement of High Voltages

On alternating voltages there is a small current

Measurement of High Voltages

Bowdler designed an attracted disc voltmeter, operating

Measurement of High Voltages

The author has estimated errors arising from factors such

Measurement of High Voltages

Broadbent, Cooper and Elliott(S) have recently described

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

The disc is attached to one arm of a mechanical balance

Measurement of High Voltages

This causes an unbalance in a bridge circuit containing

Measurement of High Voltages

The attractive force corresponding to any given coil

Measurement of High Voltages

Used for measurement of A.C, D.C and Impulse voltage.

Sphere gaps are commonly used for the measurement of

Measurement of High Voltages

The calibration data recommended in the British Standard

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

The mechanism of electric breakdown in air was

Measurement of High Voltages

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

The accuracy of measurement of voltage with sphere gap

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

Measurement of High Voltages

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

A similar reduction was observed when an earthed

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

A comparison of results for sphere spacings larger than

Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects

It was pointed out that the accuracy with which voltages

Measurement of High Voltages

The air density is expressed as