Electromagnetism

Contents
Review of Maxwells equations and Lorentz Force Law
Motion of a charged particle under constant

Electromagnetic fields
Relativistic transformations of fields
Electromagnetic energy conservation
Electromagnetic waves
Waves in vacuo
Waves in conducting medium

Waves in a uniform conducting guide

Simple example TE01 mode
Propagation constant, cut-off frequency
Group velocity, phase velocity
Illustrations

Reading
J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics
H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman: University

Physics (with Modern Physics)

P.C. Clemmow: Electromagnetic Theory

Feynmann Lectures on Physics
W.K.H. Panofsky and M.N. Phillips: Classical

Electricity and Magnetism

G.L. Pollack and D.R. Stump: Electromagnetism

Basic Equations from Vector

Calculus
For a scalar function x,y,z,t ,

gradient :
, ,
x y z

Gradient is normal to
surfaces

=constant

For a vector F F1 , F2 , F3 ,
F1 F2 F3
divergence : F

x
y
z
F3 F2 F1 F3 F2 F1
curl : F

z z
x x y
y

Basic Vector Calculus

( F G) G F F G

0, F 0

2
( F ) ( F ) F

Stokes

Theorem

F dS F d r
S

dS n dS
Oriented
boundary C

Divergence or Gauss
Theorem

F dV F dS
V

Closed surface S, volume

V, outward pointing normal
5

What is
Electromagnetism?
The study of Maxwells equations, devised in 1863 to

represent the relationships between electric and

magnetic fields in the presence of electric charges
and currents, whether steady or rapidly fluctuating,
in a vacuum or in matter.

The equations represent one of the most elegant and

concise way to describe the fundamentals of

electricity and magnetism. They pull together in a
consistent way earlier results known from the work of
Gauss, Faraday, Ampre, Biot, Savart and others.

Remarkably, Maxwells equations are perfectly

consistent with the transformations of special

relativity.

Maxwells Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated
by charge and current distributions.
E = electric field
D = electric displacement
H = magnetic field
B = magnetic flux density
= charge density
j = current density
0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12
c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s

In vacuum D 0 E , B 0 H , 0 0 c 2 1

B 0

B
E
t

D
H j
t


E
0

Maxwells 1st Equation

Equivalent to Gauss Flux Theorem:

E
0

1
E dV E d S
0
V
S

Q
dV

0
V

The flux of electric field out of a closed region is proportional to

the total electric charge Q enclosed within the surface.
A point charge q generates an electric field

E

E
dS

sphere

q
r
4 0 r 3

q
4 0

dS q

r2 0
sphere

Area integral gives a measure of the net charge

enclosed; divergence of the electric field gives the 8density
of the sources.


B 0

Maxwells 2nd Equation

Gauss law for magnetism:

B 0

B dS 0

The net magnetic flux out of any

closed surface is zero. Surround a
magnetic dipole with a closed
surface. The magnetic flux directed
inward towards the south pole will
equal the flux outward from the north
pole.
If there were a magnetic monopole
source, this would give a non-zero
integral.
Gauss law for magnetism is then a statement
that
There are no magnetic monopoles

B
E
t

Maxwells 3rd
Equation

Equivalent to Faradays Law

of

Induction:
B

E dS t dS
S

d
d
E dl B dS
dt S
dt
C
(for a fixed circuit C)

The electromotive
E dl force round a circuit
is proportional to the rate of

change
offlux
B dof
S magnetic field,

through the circuit.

Faradays Law is the basis for
electric generators. It also forms the
basis for inductors and

1 E
B 0 j 2
c t

Maxwells 4th Equation

Originates from Ampres (Circuital) Law :

B 0 j

B dl B dS 0 j dS 0 I

Ampre

Satisfied by the field for a steady line current (Biot-Savart

Law, 1820):

0 I
B
4

Biot

dl r
r3

0 I
For a straight line current B
2 r

Need for Displacement

Current
Faraday: vary B-field, generate E-field
Maxwell: varying E-field should then produce a B-field, but not

covered by Ampres Law.

Apply Ampre to surface 1 (flat disk): line
integral of B = 0I
Surface 2
Surface 1
Applied to surface 2, line integral is zero
since no current penetrates the deformed
surface.
Current I
dQ
dE
Q
In capacitor, E
I

A
, so
0

dt
dt

E
Displacement current density isjd 0
t

0 A

Closed loop

E
B 0 j j d 0 j 0 0
t

12

Consistency with
Charge Conservation
Charge conservation:
Total current flowing out of a
region equals the rate of
decrease of charge within the
volume.

d
j

d
S

dV

dt

j dV dV
t

j
0
t

From Maxwells equations:

Take divergence
of (modified) Ampres equation

1
B 0 j 2 E
c t

0 0 j 0 0
t 0

0 j
t

Charge conservation is implicit in Maxwells Equations

13

Maxwells
Equations in Vacuum
In vacuum

1
D 0 E , B 0 H , 0 0 2
c

Source-free equations:

B 0

B
E
0
t

Source equations

E
0

1 E

B 2
0 j
c t

Equivalent integral forms

(useful for simple geometries)

1
E dS 0

B dS 0

dV

d
d
E dl dt B dS dt


1 d
B dl 0 j dS c 2 dt E dS
14

Example: Calculate E from B

d
E dl dt B dS

r r0

B0 sin t
0

Bz

Also from

r r0
r r0

B
E
t

r r0

d
r 2 B0 sin t r 2 B0 cos t
dt
1
E B0 r cos t
2

2 rE

d
r02 B0 sin t r02 B0 cos t
dt
r02 B0
E
cos t
2r

2 rE

1 E
then gives current density necessary
B 0 j 2
c dt to sustain the fields

Lorentz Force Law

Supplement to Maxwells equations, gives force on a charged

particle moving in an electromagnetic field:

f q Ev B

For continuous distributions, have a force density

fd E j B

Relativistic equation of motion

4-vector form:

dP
F

d

3-vector component:

v f
,
c

1 dE dp

f
,
c dt dt

d
m0 v f q E v B
dt

16

Motion of charged particles in constant

magnetic fields

d
d
m0 v f q E v B m0 v q v B
dt

dt

1. Dot product with v:

d
q
v v
v v B 0
dt
m0
But
So

d
d
v v
dt
dt

d
0 is constant v is constant
dt

v 2 c 2 2 1

2. Dot product with B:

d
q
B v
Bv B 0
dt
m0
d

B v 0, v// constant
dt

No acceleration
with a magnetic
field

v constant and v// constant

v also constant
17

Motion in constant magnetic field

dv
q

v B
dt m0

Constant magnetic field

gives uniform spiral about
B with constant energy.

v2
q

v B
m0

circular motion with radius

at angular frequency

v qB

m0v
qB

m m0

m0 v p
B

q
q
Magnetic rigidity

Motion in constant Electric Field

d
d
m0 v f q E v B m0 v q E
dt
dt
d
q
v E
Solution of
dt
m0
2
2
qE
qE
v

t 2 1

t
is v

m0
c
m0

dx v

dt

qEt
mc

x 0 1
qE
m0c

1 qE 2

t
2 m0

for qE m0c

Energy gain is qEx

Constant E-field gives uniform acceleration in straight line

19

Relativistic Transformations of E and B

E v
E//
E
B
,
E

//

are E and B and Lorentz force is

f q E v B
Exact:

v E
rest
and
B
In Frame F, particleBis
E// B//
force is
f , qB
at
2
c force, so
Assume measurements give same charge and

ug
h

id
ea

According to observer O in frame F, particle has velocity v, fields

Ro

q q and E E v B

Point charge q at rest in F:

See a current in F, giving a field

Suggests

1
B B 2 v E
c

q r
, B0
3
4 0 r

0 q v r
1
B
2 vE
3
4 r
c

Potentials
Magnetic vector potential:

B 0 A such that B A

Electric scalar potential:

A
A
E
A
E 0
t
t
t
t

A
with E
, so E
t
t

Lorentz Gauge:
f(t), A A

Use freedom to set

1
A 0
2
c t

21

Electromagnetic 4-Vectors
Lorentz
Gauge

1
1
1
A 0
, , A 4
2
c t
c t
c

4-gradient

Current
4-vector

4-potential

j v

J 0V 0 ( c, v ) ( c, j )

where 0

Continuity
1

4 J
, c , j
j 0
equation
t
c t

Charge-current
transformations

v jx
jx jx v , 2
c

22

Relativistic Transformations

4-potential vector: A , A
c

Lorentz transformation '

c
A' x

A' y

A' z

0
0

0
0

0 0

0 0

1 0
0 1

c
Ax
A
y
Az

Ay Ax
B A Bz

and y y , x ' x vt
x y
Fields:

A
Az
vx

E
E z

and z z, t t 2
t
z t
c

B// B//

v E
B 2
c

E// E//

E E v B

23

Example: Electromagnetic Field of a Single

Particle
Charged particle moving along x-axis of Frame F

Frame F

z
Observer P

Frame F
z
Origins coincide
at t=t=0

P has

charge q

0 xP ( xP vt ) so xP vt

vx p

2
2 2
x p r ' b v t ' , t ' t 2 t
In F, fields are only electrostatic (B=0), given by c

x ' P ( vt ' ,0, b), so

q
E ' 3 x 'P
r'

qvt '
qb
E ' x 3 , E ' y 0, E ' z 3
r'
r'

qvt '
qb
E ' x 3 , E ' y 0, E ' z 3
r'
r'
Transform to laboratory frame F:

B// B//

E// E//

v E
B 2
c

E v B

By 2 E 'z Ez
c
c

Ex E 'x

v t

2 2 2

Ey 0
Ez E 'z

Bx Bz 0
At non-relativistic energies, 1, restoring the
Biot-Savart law:

v r
Bq 3
r

q vt

q b
2

v t

2 2 2

Electromagnetic Energy
Rate of doing work on unit volume of a system is

v f d v E j B v E j E

Substitute for j from Maxwells equations and re-arrange into

the form

D

D

E E H H E E
j E H
t
t

B D
S H
E
where S E H
t
t
1
S
ED BH
Poynting vector
2 t

26

1
j E
BH ED E H

t 2

Integrated over a volume, have energy conservation law:

rate of doing work on system equals rate of increase of
stored electromagnetic energy+ rate of energy flow across
boundary.

dW
d
1
E D B H dV E H dS
dt
dt
2

electric +
magnetic energy
densities of the
fields

Poynting vector
gives flux of e/m
energy across
boundaries
27

Review of Waves
2
2

u
1

u
1D wave equation is
2 2
2
x
v t

with

general solution

u( x, t ) f ( vt x ) g ( vt x )

Simple plane wave:

1D : sin t k x

2
Wavelength is
k
Frequency is

3D : sin t k x

Phase and group velocities

i ( k ) t kx
A
(
k
)
e
dk

Plane wave sin t k x

t phase
kx 2
constant
peaks

has

t kx 0
x
vp

t k

at

Superposition of plane waves. While

shape is relatively undistorted, pulse
travels with the group velocity

vg

d
dk

Wave packet structure

Phase velocities of individual plane waves

making up the wave packet are different,

The wave packet will then disperse with time
30

Electromagnetic waves
Maxwells equations predict the existence of electromagnetic

waves, later discovered by Hertz.

No charges, no currents:

B
E
t

B
t

2
2
D
E
2
t
t 2

D
H
t

D 0

B
E
t

B 0

2
E E E

2
E
3D wave equation :

2
2
2
2

E E E
E
2
E 2 2 2 2
x
y
z
t

Nature of Electromagnetic
A general plane wave with angular frequency Waves
travelling in
the direction of the wave vector

k has the form

E E0 exp[i ( t k x )] B B0 exp[i ( t k x )]

Phase t k x = 2 number of waves and so is a Lorentz
invariant.
Apply Maxwells equations

ik
E 0 B

B
t

k E 0 k B

k E B

Waves are transverse to the direction of propagation,

and
k
E , B and are mutually perpendicular

Plane
Electromagnetic Wave

33

Plane Electromagnetic Waves

1 E

B 2
k B 2E
c t
c

Combined with k E B

E kc 2

deduce that

B k

Wavelength

2

k

Frequency

speed of wave in vacuum is

c
k

Reminder: The fact that t k x is an
invariant tells us that

,k
c
is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
Deduce frequency transforms as

cv
v k
cv

Waves in a Conducting Medium

E E0 exp[i ( t k x )] B B0 exp[i ( t k x )]

j E

(Ohms Law) For a medium of conductivity ,

E
E
H j
E
t
t
Modified Maxwell:

Put
Dissipation
factor

ik H E i E
conduction
current

Copper : 5.8 10 7 , 0

D 1012

Teflon : 3 10 -8 , 2.1 0

D 2.57 10 4

displacement
current

Attenuation in a Good Conductor

i k H E i E

B
Combine with E
k E H
t

k k E k H i E

k E k k 2 E i E

k 2 i since k E 0

1
x
1 i
exp

,
k

copper.mov

For a good conductor D >> 1,

, k 2 i

x

Wave form is exp i t

where

is the skin - depth

1 i
2
water.mov

Charge Density in a Conducting

Material

Inside a conductor (Ohms law)

j E
Continuity equation is

j 0
t

E 0

t
t

Solution is

0e

So charge density decays exponentially with time. For a very

good conductor, charges flow instantly to the surface to form a
surface charge density and (for time varying fields) a surface
current. Inside a perfect conductor () E=H=0

Maxwells Equations in a Uniform

Perfectly Conducting Guide
z

Hollow metallic cylinder with perfectly

conducting boundary surfaces

Maxwells equations with time dependence exp(it) are:

x

2
B

E
E
i H

i H

H
i E
2 E
t

E
2
2

Assume E ( x, y , z , t ) E ( x, y )e( i t z )

H ( x, y , z , t ) H ( x, y )e( i t z )
is the propagation constant
Can solve for the fields completely
in terms of Ez and Hz

Then

2
t

( )
2

E
0
H

Special cases
Transverse magnetic (TM modes):
Hz=0 everywhere, Ez=0 on cylindrical boundary
Transverse electric (TE modes):
Ez=0 everywhere, H z 0 on cylindrical
n
boundary
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM modes):
Ez=Hz=0 everywhere
requires
2 2 0 or i
39

A simple model: Parallel Plate Waveguide

Transport between two infinite conducting plates (TE01 mode):

E (0,1,0) E ( x ) e( i t z )

where E ( x ) satisfies

d 2E
2
2
2
2
E

K
E
,
K

dx 2
sin
i.e. E A
Kx
cos
2
t

y
x

To satisfy boundary conditions, E=0 on x=0 and x=a, so

E A sin Kx, K K n

n
, n integer
a

a
x=

0
x=

Propagation constant is

K
1
a
c
2
n

Kn
where c

40

Cut-off frequency,
c

n
nx i t z
n
, E A sin

1
e
, c
a
a
a
c
c gives real solution for , so

attenuation only. No wave propagates: cut-off

modes.
c gives purely imaginary solution for ,
and a wave propagates without attenuation.

ik , k
2

2
c

2
c
2

only a finite number of

modes can propagate.
For a given frequency

n
c
a

a
n

For given frequency, convenient to

choose a s.t. only n=1 mode
occurs.
41

Propagated Electromagnetic Fields

B
From E , assuming A is real,
t

Ak n x
sin
cos t kz
Hx
a

i
H
E
Hy 0

A n
n x
cos
sin t kz
Hz
a
a

42

Phase and group velocities in the simple

wave guide

Wave
number:

2
c

2
2
, the free space wavelength
Wavelength: k

1
,
Phase velocity: v p
k

larger than free - space velocity

Group velocity:

k
2

2
c

d
k
1
vg

dk

smaller than free - space velocity

43

Calculation of Wave Properties

If a=3cm, cut-off frequency of lowest order mode is

c
1
3 108
fc

5 GHz
2 2a 2 0.03

n
c
a

At 7GHz, only the n=1 mode propagates and

k
2

2
c

2 7 2 52

2
6 cm
k

v p 4.3 108 ms1 c

k
k
vg
2.1 108 ms1 c

12

109 / 3 108 103 m 1

44

Waveguide animations
TE1 mode above cut-off
TE1 mode, smaller
TE1 mode at cut-off
TE1 mode below cut-off
TE1 mode, variable
TE2 mode above cut-off
TE2 mode, smaller
TE2 mode at cut-off
TE2 mode below cut-off

ppwg_1-1.mov
ppwg_1-2.mov
ppwg_1-3.mov
ppwg_1-4.mov
ppwg_1_vf.mov
ppwg_2-1.mov
ppwg_2-2.mov
ppwg_2-3.mov
ppwg_2-4.mov
45

Flow of EM energy along the simple

guide
Fields (c) are:

n x
E x E z 0, E y A sin
cos t kz
a
k
n
n x
Hx
E y , H y 0, H z
A cos
sin t kz

a
a
Total e/m energy
density

Time-averaged energy:

1 2
W A a
4

a
2
1
1 2
Electric energy We E dx A a
4 0
8

2
1
1 2
Magnetic energy Wm H dx A a
4 0
8

We

n
k

a

2

n 2 2
since k 2 2
a
2

46

Poynting vector is
Time-averaged:
Integrate over x:

Poynting Vector

S E H E H ,0, E H
y

1
kA2 2 n x
S 0, 0,1
sin
2

1 akA2
Sz
4

So energy is transported at a rate:

Total e/m energy

density

1 2
W A a
4

Sz
k

vg
We Wm

Electromagnetic energy is transported down the waveguide

with the group velocity
47

48