Internetworking

Introduction to TCP/IP
IP Subnetting; VLSM and troubleshooting

TCP/IP
IP Routing
EIGRP e OSPF
Layer 2 Switching and Spanning Tree
Protocol
Virtual LANs
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
Wide Area Networks

Internetworking
Introduction to TCP/IP

Networks and networking have grown

exponentially over the last 15 years

More and more, it is networks that connect us.
People communicate online from everywhere.
Efficient, dependable technology enables
networks to be available whenever and
wherever we need them.
As network continues to expand, the platform
that connects and supports it must also grow.

Data or information networks vary in size and

capabilities, but all networks have four basic

elements in common:
Rules or agreements to govern how the

messages are sent, directed, received and

interpreted.
The messages or units of information that
travel from one device to another
A means of interconnecting these devices a
medium that can transport the messages from
one device to another
Devices on the network that exchange messages
with each other

Multiple services-multiple networks

Traditional telephone, radio, television, and

computer data networks each have their own

individual versions of the four basic network
elements.
In the past, every one of these services required a
different technology to carry its particular
communication signal.
Additionally, each service had its own set of
rules and standards to ensure successful
communication of its signal across a specific
medium.

Multiple services-multiple networks

Converged networks
Technology advances

are enabling us to
consolidate networks
onto one platform - a
platform defined as a
converged network.
The flow of voice,
video, and data
traveling over the same
network eliminates the
need to create and
maintain separate
networks.

As the Internet, and networks in general,

evolve, there are four basic characteristics

that the underlying architectures need to
address in order to meet user expectations:
Fault tolerance
Scalability
Quality of service
Security.

Internetworking Basics
A connection of two or more data networks forms an

internetwork - a network of networks.

It is also common to refer to an internetwork as a data
network or simply as a network

Data networking solutions

Local-area networks
A

LAN is usually administered by a

single organization

Wide-area networks
WANs

use specifically designed

network devices to make the
interconnections between LANs

Operate within a limited geographic area

Allow many users to access high-bandwidth media
Provide full-time connectivity to local services
Connect physically adjacent devices

Analog modems
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Frame Relay
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
T (US) and E (Europe) carrier series: T1, E1, T3, E3
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

A VPN is a private network that is constructed

within a public network infrastructure such as

the global Internet.

A VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable

connectivity over a shared public network

infrastructure such as the Internet.
VPNs maintain the same security and
management policies as a private network.
They are the most cost-effective method of
establishing a point-to-point connection
between remote users and an enterprise
customer's network.

Initially the OSI model was designed by the

International Organization for Standardization

(ISO) to provide a framework on which to build a
suite of open systems protocols.
The seven-layer OSI model has made major
contributions to the development of other
protocols and products for all types of new
networks.
The OSI model provides an extensive list of
functions and services that can occur at each
layer.
It also describes the interaction of each layer
with the layers directly above and below it.

The application (upper)

layers

Layer 7: Application
Layer 6: Presentation
Layer 5: Session

The data-flow (lower) layers

Layer 4: Transport
Layer 3: Network
Layer 2: Data link
Layer 1: Physical

Application
User interface
Examples Telnet, HTTP
Presentation
Data translation
How data is presented
Special processing, such as encryption and
compression
Examples ASCII, EMCDIC, JPEG
Session
Dialog control (maintains, tracks and close
sessions between applications)
Keeping different applications data separate
Examples Operating system/application access
scheduling

Transport
End to end connection
Reliable or unreliable delivery
Error correction before transmit
Examples: TCP, UDP, SPX
Network
Provide logical addressing which

routers use for path determination

Examples: IP, IPX

Data link
Combines bits into bytes and bytes into

frames
Access to media using MAC address
Examples: 802.3/802.2, HDLN

Physical
Moves bits between devices
Specifies voltage, wire speed, and pinout

cables
Examples: EIA/TIA-232, V.35

The Transport layer responsibilities are:

Tracking the individual communication

between applications on the source and

destination hosts.
Segmenting data and managing each
piece.
Reassembling the segments into streams
of application data.
Identifying the different applications.

To identify each segment of data, the Transport

layer adds to the piece a header containing binary

data. This header contains fields of bits. It is the
values in these fields that enable different Transport
layer protocols to perform different functions.
In addition to using the information contained in the
headers, for the basic functions of data
segmentation and reassembly, some protocols at
the Transport layer provide:
Connection-oriented conversations
Reliable delivery
Ordered data reconstruction
Flow control

Controlling the conversations

The Network layer (also called layer 3)

manages device addressing,

Tracks the location of devices on the network
Determines the best way to move data
Provide the routing services within an
internetwork.

A packet is received on a router interface,

Destination IP address is checked.
Once the router chooses an exit interface, the

packet will be sent to that interface.

If the router cant find an entry for the
packets destination network in the routing
table, the router drops the packet.

Routers, by default, will not forward any broadcast or

multicast packets.
Routers use the logical address in a Network layer header
to determine the next hop router to forward the packet to.
Routers can use access lists, created by an administrator,
to control security on the types of packets that are allowed
to enter or exit an interface.
Routers can provide layer 2 bridging functions if needed
and can simultaneously route through the same interface.
Layer 3 devices (routers in this case) provide connections
between virtual LANs (VLANs).
Routers can provide quality of service (QoS) for specific
types of network traffic.

Protocols implemented at the Network

layer that carry user data include:

The Internet Protocol (IPv4 and IPv6) is the most

widely-used Layer 3 data carrying protocol and will be
the focus of this course.

Network layer services implemented by the

TCP/IP protocol suite are the Internet Protocol

(IP). Version 4 of IP (IPv4) is currently the most
widely-used version of IP
It is the only Layer 3 protocol that is used to
carry user data over the Internet
IP version 6 (IPv6) is developed and being
implemented in some areas. IPv6 will operate
alongside IPv4 and may replace it in the future

 This course will consider these 6 key fields:

IP Source Address
IP Destination Address
Time-to-Live (TTL)
Type-of-Service (ToS)
Protocol
Fragment Offset

size of header in 32 bit words (4 bytes).

This header is 5*4 = 20 bytes, the
minimum valid size. version.

472; size of packet (header

and data) is 472 bytes.

Ver = 4; IP version.

111; original packet

identifier (required if
it is later fragmented).

123; denotes the Layer 3 processing time in seconds

before the packet is dropped (decremented by at least 1
every time a device processes the packet header).

0; denotes that
this packet is
not currently
fragmented
(there is no
offset).

0; denotes packet can be

fragmented if required.

denotes that the data carried by

this packet is a TCP segment .

The role of the Network layer is to

transfer data from the host that

originates the data to the host that uses
it
However, if the destination host and
source host are not in the same network,
the local network delivers the packet
from the source to its gateway router.
The information contained within is not
altered by any routers when forwarding
decisions are made.

The Data Link layer provides a means for

exchanging data over a common local media.

The Data Link layer performs two basic

services:
Allows the upper layers to access the media

using techniques such as framing.

Controls how data is placed onto the media and
is received from the media using techniques
such as media access control and error
detection.

The Data Link layer exists as a connecting layer

between the software processes of the layers

above it and the Physical layer below it. As such, it
prepares the Network layer packets for transmission
across some form of media, be it copper, fiber, or the
atmosphere.

 Link layer is often divided into two sublayers: an upper

sublayer and an lower sublayer.

The upper
sublayer
The Lower
sublayer

Media access control is the equivalent of traffic rules

that regulate the entrance of motor vehicles onto a

roadway.
The absence of any media access control would be
the equivalent of vehicles ignoring all other traffic
and entering the road without regard to the other
vehicles.
The method of media access control used depends

on:
Media sharing - If and how the nodes share the media
Topology - How the connection between the nodes

appears to the Data Link layer

 In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE) standards committee for Local and Metropolitan

Networks published standards for LANs. These standards start
with the number 802. The standard for Ethernet is 802.3
Ethernet operates in the lower two layers of the OSI model:
the Data Link layer and the Physical layer.

The MAC sublayer is concerned with the physical

components that will be used to communicate the

information and prepares the data for transmission
over the media.
IEEE 802.3 standard describes the MAC sublayer

and the Physical layer functions

The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer

remains relatively independent of the physical

equipment that will be used for the communication
process.
IEEE 802.2 standard describes the LLC sublayer

functions

Ethernet is a contention media access method that

allows all hosts on a network to share the same

bandwidth of a link.
Ethernet networking uses Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
Ethernet operates across two layers of the OSI

model.
Ethernet at Layer 1 involves signals, bit streams that

travel on the media, physical components that put

signals on media, and various topologies.
Ethernet at Layer 2 contribute significantly to
technological compatibility and computer
communications.

In CSMA/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), the device monitors

the media for the presence of a data signal. If a data signal is

absent, indicating that the media is free, the device transmits
the data. If signals are then detected that show another device
was transmitting at the same time, all devices stop sending and
try again later. Traditional forms of Ethernet use this method.

 The first versions of Ethernet used coaxial cable to connect

computers in a bus topology. Each computer was directly

connected to the backbone. These early versions of Ethernet were
known as Thicknet, (10BASE5) and Thinnet (10BASE2).

The early implementations of Ethernet were deployed in a low-

bandwidth LAN environment where access to the shared media

was managed by CSMA, and later CSMA/CD. In additional to being
a logical bus topology at the Data Link layer, Ethernet also used a
physical bus topology

In 10BASE-T networks, typically the central

point of the network segment was a hub.

This created a shared media.
Only one station could successfully transmit at a
time.
Half-duplex communication.

Introduction of switches to replace hubs in Ethernet-

based networks
Switches can control the flow of data by isolating each
port and sending a frame only to its proper destination (if
the destination is known), rather than send every frame
to every device.
Full-duplex communications

The increasing use of Voice over IP (VoIP) and

multimedia services requires connections that are

faster than 100 Mbps Ethernet.
Gigabit Ethernet is used to describe Ethernet
implementations that provide bandwidth of 1000
Mbps (1 Gbps) or greater.

 Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter Fields- The Preamble (7 bytes) and Start

Frame Delimiter (SFD) (1 byte) fields are used for synchronization between the sending
and receiving devices
Destination MAC Address Field- (6 bytes) is the identifier for the intended recipient.
Source MAC Address Field- (6 bytes) identifies the frame's originating NIC or
interface.
Length/Type Field- (2 bytes) defines the exact length of the frame's data field.
Data and Pad Fields- (46 - 1500 bytes) contains the encapsulated data from a higher
layer, which is a generic Layer 3 PDU, or more commonly, an IPv4 packet.
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field (4 bytes) is used to detect errors in a
frame. It uses a cyclic redundancy check (CRC)

 The original Ethernet standard defined the minimum frame

size as 64 bytes and the maximum as 1518 bytes.

If the size of a transmitted frame is less than the minimum
or greater than the maximum, the receiving device
drops the frame. Dropped frames are likely to be the result of
collisions or other unwanted signals and are therefore
considered invalid.

Ethernet uses MAC addresses that are 48 bits

in length and expressed as 12 hexadecimal

digits.
The first 6 hexadecimal digits, which are
administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer
or vendor and thus comprise the Organizational
Unique Identifier (OUI).
The remaining 6 hexadecimal digits represent the
interface serial number, or another value
administered by the specific equipment
manufacturer.

The OSI Physical layer provides the means to

transport across the network media the bits that

make up a Data Link layer frame.
The delivery of frames across the local media

requires the following Physical layer elements:

The physical media and associated connectors
A representation of bits on the media
Encoding of data and control information
Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the network

devices

Physical layer
There are three basic forms of

network media on which data is

represented:
Copper cable
Fiber
Wireless

Physical layer
Three fundamental functions of the

Physical layer are:

The physical components
Data encoding
Signaling

 Cable and connector specifications for the most popular Ethernet implementations.

The most commonly used media for data

communications is cabling that uses copper

wires to signal data and control bits between
network devices.
Cables can be used to connect nodes on a LAN
to intermediate devices, such as routers and
switches. Cables are also used to connect WAN
devices to a data services provider such as a
telephone company.
Each type of connection and the accompanying
devices have cabling requirements stipulated by
Physical layer standards.

Maintain the pin

connection all the way
through the cable.

Use straight-through cables for the

following connections:
- Switch to router
- Switch to PC or server
- Hub to PC or server

Pin 1 connected to pin

3, pin 2 connected to
pin 6.

Use crossover cables for the

following connections:
- Switch to switch
- Switch to hub
- Hub to hub
- Router to router
- PC to PC
- Router to PC

In networking, hierarchical design is used to

group devices into multiple networks that are

organized in a layered approach.
A hierarchical, layered design provides increased
efficiency, optimization of function, and increased
speed.
It allows the network to scale as required
because additional local networks can be added
without impacting the performance of the
existing ones.

The hierarchical design has three basic layers:

Access Layer - to provide connections to

hosts in a local Ethernet network.

Distribution Layer - to interconnect the
smaller local networks.
Core Layer - a high-speed connection
between distribution layer devices.

The Core Layer is a high-speed backbone layer with redundant

(backup) connections. It is responsible for transporting large
amounts of data between multiple end networks. Core Layer
devices typically include very powerful, high-speed switches and
routers. The main goal of the Core Layer is to transport data
quickly.

The Distribution Layer provides a connection point for separate

networks and controls the flow of information between the
networks. It typically contains more powerful switches than the
Access Layer as well as routers for routing between networks.
Distribution Layer devices control the type and amount of traffic
that flows from the Access Layer to the Core Layer.

Distribution Layer normal

actions
Routing
Implementing tools (such as access lists),

packet filtering, and queuing

Implementing security and network policies,
including address translation and firewalls
Redistributing between routing protocols,
including static routing
Routing between VLANs and other
workgroup support functions
Defining broadcast and multicast domains

The Access Layer provides a connection point for end user

devices to the network and allows multiple hosts to connect to
other hosts through a network device, usually a hub or switch.
- Shared bandwidth
- Switched bandwidth
- MAC layer filtering
- Microsegmentation

Continued (from distribution layer) use of

access control and policies

Creation of separate collision domains
(segmentation)
Workgroup connectivity into the distribution
layer

Segmentation and
network devices

User needs such as sharing data and printers or

using critical services like voice or

videoconferencing.
Network grew and grew LAN traffic
congestion reached overwhelming proportions.
Breaking up a larger network into a number of
smaller ones is called network segmentation
and its accomplished using Routers,
Switches and bridges

Possible causes of LAN

traffic congestion are:
Too many hosts in a broadcast domain
Broadcast storms
Multicasting
Low bandwidth
Adding hubs for connectivity to the network

Routers are used to connect networks

together and route packets of data from

one network to another
Routers, by default, break up a
broadcast domain
Routers break up collision domains
as well.

Packet switching
Packet filtering
Internetwork communication
Path selection

A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and

passes it on. It can regenerate and retime network

signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a
longer distance on the media.

No more than four repeaters can be used between

hosts on a LAN. This rule is used to limit latency
added to frame travel by each repeater thus
reducing Late Collisions.

Repeaters

A regra dita que entre quaisquer dois ns na

rede podem existir o mximo de cinco

segmentos, conectados atravs de quatro
repetidores, ou concentradores, e somente trs
dos cinco segmentos podem conter utilizadores.

Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. The difference

between hubs and repeaters is usually the number of

ports that each device provides.
A typical repeater usually has two ports. A hub
generally has from 4 to 24 ports
Hubs are most commonly used in Ethernet 10BASE-T
or 100BASE-T networks.
The use of a hub changes the network from a linear
bus with each device plugged directly into the wire to
a star topology
Data that arrives over the cables to a hub port is
electrically repeated on all the other ports connected
to the network segment.

Devices attached to a hub receive all traffic traveling

through the hub.
The more devices there are attached to the hub, the
more likely there will be collisions.
A collision occurs when two or more workstations send
data over the network wire at the same time.
All data is corrupted when that occurs.
Every device connected to the same network segment
is said to be a member of a collision domain.

There are times when it is necessary to break up a large

LAN into smaller, more easily managed segments.

The devices that are used to connect network segments
together include bridges, switches, routers, and
gateways.
Switches and bridges operate at the Data Link layer of
the OSI model.
The function of the bridge or switch is to make intelligent
decisions about whether or not to pass signals on to the
next segment of a network.
They makes these decisions based upon the layer 2
physical address (MAC).
A Bridge therefore has two main functions:
Switch data frames
Build and maintain tables

When a bridge receives a frame on the network,

the destination MAC address is looked up in the
bridge table to determine whether to filter, flood,
or copy the frame onto another segment. This
decision process occurs as follows:

1- If the destination device is on the same segment as

the frame, the bridge will not send the frame onto other
segments. This process is known as filtering.
2- If the destination device is on a different segment, the
bridge forwards the frame to the appropriate segment.
3- If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the
bridge forwards the frame to all segments except the
one on which it was received. This process is known as
flooding.

 A switch is sometimes described as a multiport

bridge.
Switches build forwarding tables to determine the
destination of data being sent by one computer to
another computer on the network.
A switch is a more sophisticated device than a
bridge.
Switching is a technology that alleviates
congestion in Ethernet LANs by reducing the
traffic and increasing the bandwidth.
Switches can easily replace hubs because
switches work with existing cable infrastructures.
This improves performance with a minimum of
intrusion into an existing network.

 Switches equipment performs two basic

operations. The first operation is called

switching data frames. The second is the
maintenance of switching operations where
switches build and maintain switching tables
and search for loops.
Switches operate at much higher speeds than
bridges and can support new functionality, such
as virtual LANs (VLANs).
Moving to a switched LAN environment is very
cost effective because existing hardware and
cabling can be reused.

The function of a Network Interface Card (NIC)

is to connect a host device to the network

medium
A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into
the expansion slot on the motherboard or
peripheral device of a computer
NICs are considered Layer 2 devices because
each NIC carries a unique code called a MAC
address
NICs control host access to the medium

When two bits are propagated at the same time on

the same network, a collision will occur.

Collisions are not inherently bad.

They are a normal function of Legacy

Ethernet.
Data on the network during a collision is

lost and usually must be retransmitted.

Increased collisions indicate congestion.

All devices on a network that would cause a

collision if they transmitted simultaneously are

in a collision domain.
Networks with only Layer 1 components are a
single collision domain.

Extended by a hub

Shared media

Each is a single collision domain!

Extended by a repeater

Extended by a hub
and repeater

Broadcast
domain
Collisions
domains

Layer 2 devices must flood all broadcast and

multicast traffic.
The accumulation of broadcast and
multicast traffic from each device in the
network is referred to as broadcast radiation.
When a node needs to communicate with
all hosts on the network, it sends a
broadcast frame with a destination MAC
address 0xFFFFFFFFFFFF
A broadcast domain is a group of collision
domains that are connected by Layer 2 devices

?
Dvidas

- The first layered protocol model

for internetwork communications
was created in the early 1970s and
is referred to as the Internet

model.
- It defines four categories of
functions that must occur for
communications to be successful.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

Both have layers.

Both have application layers, though they

include very different services.

Both have comparable transport and network
layers.
Packet-switched, not circuit-switched,
technology is assumed.
Networking professionals need to know both
models.

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session

layer into its application layer.

TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical
layers into one layer (Network access)
TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer
layers.
TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not
always guarantee reliable delivery of packets as
the transport layer in the OSI model does.

Handles high-level protocols, issues of

representation, encoding, and dialog

control.
The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all
application related issues into one layer and
ensures this data is properly packaged before
passing it on to the next layer.

TCP/IP Operation
IP addresses allow for the routing of packets between

networks
IP makes no guarantees about delivery
The transport layer is responsible for the reliable transport
of and regulation of data flow from source to destination
This is accomplished using:
Sliding windows (flow control)
Sequencing numbers and acknowledgments

(reliability)
Synchronization (establish a virtual circuit)

This process ensures that each host is ready and willing to

communicate

The transport layer is responsible

for the reliable transport of and
regulation of data flow from
source to destination.

Five basic services:

Segmenting upper-layer application data
Establishing end-to-end operations
Sending segments from one end host to

another end host

Ensuring data reliability
Providing flow control

Connection oriented (CO)

Reliable
Divides outgoing messages into segments
Reassembles messages at the destination

station
Resends anything not received
Reassembles messages from incoming
segments

Connectionless (CL)
Unreliable
Transmits messages (called user datagrams)
Provides no software checking for message

delivery (unreliable)
Does not reassemble incoming messages
Uses no acknowledgments
Provides no flow control

TCP Operation
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
Prior to data transmission, the two communicating

hosts go through a synchronization process to establish

a virtual connection for each session between hosts:
Ensures that both sides are ready for data
transmission
Determine the initial sequence numbers for
that session
This process is known as a three-way handshake
TCP re-sends anything that is not received and supplies
a virtual circuit between end-user applications.
The advantage of TCP is that it provides guaranteed
delivery of the segments.

Reducing Window Size

UDP is a simple protocol that provides the basic

Transport layer functions.

Lower

overhead than TCP

It is not connection-oriented
Does not provide the sophisticated
retransmission, sequencing, and flow control
mechanisms.
Some applications, such as online games or VoIP, can

tolerate some loss of some data. If these applications

used TCP, they may experience large delays while TCP
detects data loss and retransmits data.

The Well Known Ports are those from 0

through 1023. They are considered public

port numbers and are controlled by the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
and on most systems can only be used by
system (or root) processes or by programs
executed by privileged users.
The Registered Ports are those from 1024
through 49151 and on most systems can be
used by ordinary user, processes or programs
executed by ordinary users.
The Dynamic and/or Private Ports are
those from 49152 through 65535

The purpose of the Internet layer is to send

packets from a network node and have them

arrive at the destination node independent of the
path taken.
Internet layer protocols:
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

- Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works at the

Network layer and is used by IP for many different services
-ICMP is a management protocol and messaging service
provider for IP.
- Ping e Traceroute so dois exemplos de comandos que
fazem uso de ICMP messages

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the

hardware address of a host from a known IP

address
ARP interrogates the local network by sending
out a broadcast asking the machine with the
specified IP address to reply with its
hardware address.

RARP is a protocol by which a physical machine in

a local area network can request to learn its IP

address from a gateway server's Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache.
A network administrator creates a table in a local
area network's gateway router that maps the
physical machine (or Media Access Control MAC
address) addresses to corresponding Internet
Protocol addresses
When a new machine is set up, its RARP client
program requests from the RARP server on the
router to be sent its IP address. The RARP server
will return the IP address to the machine which
can store it for future use.

Knowing what base someone refers to

Decimal uses 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9.
Binary uses 2 digits: 0 and 1.

Base conventions
101 in base 2 is spoken as one zero one.
Working with exponents
103 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 1000
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16
Binary numbers
Use principle of place value just as decimal

numbers do

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

128

64

32

16

Binary Value: 10101010

Binary Value: 11101001

Start the value row and
position row with 1 in
the rightmost box.
Each subsequent value
is the current value
times the base (2 in this
case).

Example: 35 = 32 + 2 + 1 = 00100011
27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

128

64

32

16

The table will work with larger

numbers, such as this 12-bit
example.
For any number in the value row,
the sum of all numbers to the
right is the current value minus 1
(64 - 1 = 63).
Sometimes its easier to
subtract the 0 values from 255
(largest 8-bit value).

Powers of 2 are used extensively in networking.

One solution:
1.Start with 2 (which is 21).
2.Double the number to get the next value.
3.If you need 26, continue until you have 6 values.

Binary numbers are converted to decimal

numbers by multiplying the binary digits by

the base number of the system, which is base
2, and raised to the exponent of its position.

Split the binary number into four groups of

eight binary digits. Then convert each group

of eight bits, also known as an octet into its
decimal equivalent.

The base 16, or

hexadecimal
(hex), number
system is used
frequently
when working
with computers,
because it can
be used to
represent
binary numbers
in a more
readable form.

The IP address of a computer usually consists

of a network, and a host part that represents a

particular computer on a particular network.

Class A (24 bits for hosts) 224 - 2* = 16,777,214 maximum hosts

Class B (16 bits for hosts) 216 - 2* = 65,534 maximum hosts
Class C (8 bits for hosts) 28 - 2* = 254 maximum hosts
*

Subtracting the network and broadcast reserved address

An IP address such as 176.10.0.0 that has all binary 0s in

the host bit positions is reserved for the network address.

An IP address such as 176.10.255.255 that has all binary 1s

in the host bit positions is reserved for the broadcast
address.

In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate

one of three different ways:

Unicast - the process of sending a packet

from one host to an individual host

Broadcast - the process of sending a packet

from one host to all hosts in the network

Multicast - the process of sending a packet

from one host to a selected group of hosts

120
59

Revisions Decimal to binary

0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

C
A
C

188.10.0.0
10.10.48.0
10.0.0.0
27.0.0.0

?
Dvidas