Nuclear Physics

Discovery of the nucleus

Rutherford carried out experiments to see
what happened when alpha particles (2
neutrons and 2 protons) were fired at metal
foil.
His Discoveries:
Most alpha particles passed straight
through the foil
A few were deflected through a small angle
About 1 in 1000 were deflected straight
back through 180 degrees.

What this told us about the nucleus

The inside of atoms must contain
small positively charged nuclei as a
few of the alpha particles were
repelled and deflected.
The nucleus is very small as only a
few alpha particles were deflected.
The nucleus is concentrated in a tiny
volume as only a tiny percentage are
deflected back toward the observer.

Isotopes
Isotopes of a certain element have
different numbers of neutrons in their
nucleus, but the same number of
protons.
The mass number (A) will be different
but the atomic/proton number (Z) will
be the same.

Beyond fundamental
particles
There are two distinct groups of
particles.
HADRONS/BARYONS: Particles
affected by the strong nuclear force
(protons/neutrons)
LEPTONS: Particles unaffected by the
strong nuclear force (electrons)

Inside hadrons
Inside hadrons are quarks each hadron
is made up of three quarks.
There are six flavours of quarks up,
down, strange, top, bottom, charm.
Each quark has its opposite antiquark.
The properties of hadrons are the sum of
the properties of its constituent quarks.

Quark properties

Charge
+2/3

Baryon
no.
+1/3

Strangen
ess
0

Up
Down

-1/3

+1/3

Strang
e

-1/3

+1/3

-1

In any interaction between hadrons charge,

baryon number and strangeness are conserved.
A PROTON is made up of two up and one down
quark
A NEUTRON is made up of one up and two down
quarks
A PI+MESON is made up of one up quark and
one down antiquark

Nuclear density
NUCLEONS (neutrons and protons) are very
dense. They have similar mass so it follows
that they have similar density. Their density
is approximately 1.5*1017kgm-3.
Nuclear density is much bigger than atomic
density. This suggests:
1. Most of an atoms mass is in its nucleus
2. The nucleus is small compared to the atom
3. An atom must contain a lot of empty space.

The strong nuclear force

The strong nuclear force is repulsive for very
small separations of nucleons.
After 0.5fm the strong nuclear force becomes
attractive, and reaches a maximum attractive
value before falling rapidly towards zero after
3fm.
The repulsive electrostatic force between protons
extends over a much larger area but is weaker
than the strong nuclear force.
The strong nuclear force must be an attractive
force greater than the electrostatic force of
repulsion between two protons approximately
90N.

The strong nuclear force

It can only hold the nucleus together if its
diameter is less than 10fm.
The strong nuclear force must be
repulsive at very small separations
otherwise it would crush the nucleus.
If a nucleus has more protons than 83, the
strong nuclear force cannot hold it
together and it becomes unstable and
emits radiation, this is because the
electrostatic force of repulsion between
the protons becomes too great.

The strong nuclear force

Alpha () Radiation

He nucleus.

4
2

Most strongly ionising

Shortest range in air 10cm
Can be absorbed by a sheet of paper

Beta () Radiation
+ is a positron and is emitted when
a proton decays into a neutron
- is an electron and is emitted when
a neutron decays into a proton
Fairly ionising
Range of a few metres in air
Absorbed by a thin sheet of
aluminium

Gamma () Radiation
Photons of high energy
electromagnetic radiation
Emitted after and radiation to
release excess energy from the
nucleus
Also emitted when a positron collides
with an electron
Can never be fully absorbed
Reduced to safe levels by 10cm of
lead.

Radioactive Decay
Nuclear decay is spontaneous and
random
We cannot predict when an individual
nucleus will decay, however we can work
out the probability that a nucleus will
decay in a given time period.
This is the decay constant
It is worked out by measuring how many
nuclei have decayed out of a known
number in a sample in a certain time.

Radioactivity
The

activity of a radioactive sample

is measured in Bequerels (Bq).
1Bq is one decay per second
Also known as the count rate

Random
Nuclear decay is spontaneous and random
because:
The decay of one nucleus does not affect
any other
The decay of one nucleus is not affected by
any external factors (pressure/temp etc.)
Each nucleus in a sample has the same
chance of decaying per unit time
This makes it impossible to predict when
any particular nucleus will decay

Half-life (t1/2)
The half life of a sample is the
time taken for the number of
nuclei/count rate to decrease by
half.
Nuclear decay is exponential
The mathematical formula for
nuclear exponential decay is:

Half-life (t1/2)
Half

life can be worked out using the

previous equation.
=0.5

Half-life

Mass-energy
Mass
is essentially the same as energy

If a chemical undergoes an exothermic

reaction (i.e. loses energy), the product will
have slightly less mass than the reactant.
The same theory applies with nuclei
If you split a nuclei into its constituent
nucleons, you have to do work to overcome
the strong nuclear force (i.e. put energy in), so
the individual nucleons will be heavier than the
original nucleus.
Einstein related mass and energy in his
famous equation:

Binding Energy
The mass deficit of a nucleus is defined
as the difference between the total mass
of the individual separate nucleons and
the mass of the nucleus itself.
The binding energy of a nucleus is the
energy needed to break the nucleus into
its individual nucleons. However binding
energy is often measured per nucleon.

Binding Energy

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is when an unstable nuclei (proton
number above 83) splits into two smaller nuclei,
releasing energy.
This usually occurs when a neutron collides with the
unstable nucleus.
When an unstable nuclei splits into two smaller, stable
nuclei, more neutrons are released which can go on to
create further fission.
In nuclear power stations Uranium235 is normally
used.
Energy is released in nuclear fission because the
binding energy of the products are higher. Also, the
mass of the products is less than the mass of the
original nucleus.

Nuclear Fission
The energy released from fission is used
to heat water and turn it into steam which
drives a turbine to produce electricity.
MODERATORS inside the reaction
chamber slow down the neutrons released
from fission reactions, so that they are
more likely to collide with other nuclei.
The moderators PROMOTE fission. The
slower moving neutrons are called
thermal neutrons.

Nuclear Fission
CONTROL RODS which can be
raised or lowered into/out of the
reaction chamber absorb neutrons
produced from fission reactions, and
hence slow down the reaction. They
are INHIBITORS of fission. They are
often made of Boron and are used to
regulate the rate of the reaction or
stop it completely if need be.

Nuclear Waste
When the fission reaction stops, the
spent fuel rods contain the fission
fragments which are highly radioactive
Depending on the fragments that the
fuel rods contain, some will decay
rapidly and remain hot, so they must
be kept cool for months afterwards
Some decay very slowly and remain a
hazard for thousands of years

Nuclear Waste
The fuel rods may be stored on the surface
where they can be monitored
Or they can be stored deep underground which
raises concerns about leakage into water
supplies.
Any method used must ensure that the
radioactive fuel rods are not exposed to the
environment as this could put human health at
risk
This is one of the main problems with nuclear
power, and adds greatly to the cost of generating
electricity this way

Nuclear Fission