TKA 3301:

Global Air Pollution Problems

Dr. Marzuki Hj. Ismail

Jabatan Sains Kejuruteraan
 Topics Covered
1. Haze

2. Ozone Layer Depletion

3. Acid Rain

4. Global Warming
 TKA 3301:
Global Air Pollution Problems
Haze
 1. HAZE

1.1 What is haze?

A kind of air pollution caused by the presence
of a large number of fine particles suspended
in the atmosphere. These particles absorb
and scatter light, in the process reduce
visibility and render the air an opalescent or
hazy appearance.
 1. Haze (Cont’d)
1.2 Haze, fog or mist – ARE YOU CONFUSED?
 Haze: due to presence of suspension of dry and fine particulates.
Relative humidity is normally < 95%.
 Mist: due to presence of water droplets suspended in the air.
Relative humidity is normally > 95%.
 Fog: due to presence of water droplets suspended in the air.
Relative humidity is normally > 97%.

All of the above phenomena cause reduced visibility, but in the

Tropics, a mist or fog disappears a few hours after sunrise. As the
ground heats up the water droplets evaporate. However, haze does
not disappear as a result of the warming up of the earth’s surface by
the sun. haze may persist throughout the day and last for several
days.
 1. Haze (Cont’d)

1.3 Conditions favoring the occurrence of

haze:
 Adverse meteorological conditions
 Prolonged dry weather
 Very light winds
 Stable atmosphere (presence of inversion
layer)
 High particulate emission
 1. Haze (Cont’d)

1.4 Sources of haze:

 Local sources
 Open burning (household refuse, disposal sites)
 Biomass burning/forest fires
 Vehicular emission (diesel; 2 stroke engines)
 Industrial emission
 External sources
 Biomass burning/forest fires
 1. Haze (Cont’d)

1.5 Impact of haze on the economy:

 The haze that hit the ASEAN region in 1997 – 1998 has
been particularly severe that the UNEP labeled the
blaze among the most damaging in recorded history.
 The total economic losses in terms of agriculture
production, destruction of forest lands, health,
transportation, tourism, and other economic activities
have been estimated at $ 9.3 billion.
 1. Haze (Cont’d)

1.6 Impact of haze on earth:

 Short term: nose, throat & eye irritation; upper
respiratory infections (bronchitis & pneumonia);
headaches; nausea; allergic reactions; aggravates
conditions of asthmatic patients.
 Long term: chronic lung disease; lung cancer;
heart disease; damage to CNS, kidney and liver;
aggravates medical conditions of the aged.
 1. Haze (Cont’d)
1.7 What ASEAN’s been doing to tackle the
problem?
 ASEAN has formulated the Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) to
address its transboundary haze pollution problem.
 The RHAP has three major components: prevention, mitigation
and monitoring. Different countries have been designated to
spearhead the activities that fall under each of the three RHAP
components.
 Malaysia takes the lead in prevention, Indonesia in mitigation, &
Singapore in monitoring of fires and haze. All member countries
also undertake the national-level actions that relate to the three
RHAP components.
 Malaysia has formulated her own National Haze Action Plan.
 TKA 3301:
Global Air Pollution Problems
Ozone Layer Depletion
 2. OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
2.1 Formation and destruction of ozone
 Ozone (O3) found both in troposphere and stratosphere.
 O2 formation:
O2 + hv (λ<240nm)  2O
(note: hv = energy = hc/ λ, where h = Planck’s constant = 6.62 x 10-34 Js;
c = velocity of light = 2.998 x 108 m/s; λ = wavelength in m/s)

O + O2  O 3
 O3 destruction:
O3 + hv (λ<325nm)  O2 + O
O + O3  2O2
 Notice that O is involved in both the formation and destruction of O3.
 Sunlight derives both the formation & destruction of O3. The above
reactions stop at night.
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
 O2 absorbs radiation of wavelength (λ) ~ 200nm. O3 absorbs in the
λ range of 230 to 320 nm and converts it back to O3.

 Everyday O2 is continually being changed to O3 and O3 is likewise

converted back to O2.

 It is not completely correct to say natural process is O2O3 and

that air pollution has destroyed ozone.

 What some air pollutants do is to speed up the rate of loss of O3 so

that its steady state concentration declines.
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.2 The ozone layer
- The term “ozone layer” is misleading – no distinct region of
atmosphere in which O3 is a major atmospheric constituent.

- Main components of atmosphere in the stratosphere are still N2

(78%), O2 (21%), and Ar (1%).

- O3 concentration is very small, even in the stratosphere. Maximum

concentration is about 100 ppmv.

- If all atmospheric O3 is compressed at STP, O3 layer ~ 3 mm thick.

 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.3 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 CFCs have been manufactured since the 1930s.

 CFC-12 (CF2Cl2) was introduced as the refrigerant i.e. operating

liquid (gaseous at room temperature, easily compressible, boiling
point a little below 0 oC) in refrigerators replacing the highly toxic
SO2 and NH3.

 CFCs are also nontoxic and nonflammable.

 other uses of CFCs: blowing agents for foam industry and

propellants for aerosol sprays (mainly CFC-113, CF2ClCFCl2);
refrigerant for mobile air conditioners (automobiles).
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
 CFCs have long atmospheric lifetimes and ozone depletion potential
(ODP) as well as halocarbon global warming potential (HGWP).

 ODP is the propensity of the substance to destroy stratospheric

ozone.
 e.g.: CFC-11 (CFCl3): lifetime = 60 years; ODP = 1.0, HGWP = 3.2;
CFC-12 (CF2Cl2): 195, 0.95, and 3.1; CFC-113 (CF2ClCFCl2): 90, 0.8,
(HWDP – not available).

 CFCs alternatives should be ozone friendly as well as not act as

green house gases.
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.4. How is ozone layer destroyed?
 Reactions (e.g. CFC-12, i.e. CF2Cl2):
 CF2Cl2 + hv (λ<250 nm)  CF2Cl + Cl
 The chlorine tom released from the above reaction can participate in
the catalytic reaction for destroying ozone.
 Cl + O3  ClO + O2
 ClO + O  Cl + O2

 Notice that the chlorine atom consumed is regenerated and the

cycle is repeated over and over again.
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.5 Why do CFCs have long atmospheric lifetimes?
 CFCs are long lived pollutants; some > 100 years.
 They are almost completely inert in the troposphere (< 15km) and
only decompose through photochemical reactions once they reach
the stratosphere (15km < x < 50km).
 Why are CFCs inert in the troposphere?
 CFCs are dissociated only by light with wavelength ( λ) around 200 nm,
but O2, being an efficient absorber at this λ, denies the troposphere
radiation of this λ. CFCs are transported all the way to the stratosphere
before they are decomposed. The residence time in the stratosphere is
about 30 days.
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.6. Effects of ozone depletion
 Greater penetration of highly energetic short waved ultraviolet sunlight
radiation to the earth’s surface:
 Change of the climate.
 Lowering of stratosphere; lowering the altitude of the tropopause.

 Biological effects
 Less efficient filtering of radiation in the range 290 – 330 nm i.e. UV-B. This high
energy radiation will have adverse effects on planktons, plants, animals, humans
(skin cancer; photochemical reaction in DNA).
 2. Ozone Layer Depletion
(Cont’d)
2.7. International efforts to arrest ozone layer depletion – The
Montreal Protocol on substance that deplete the ozone layer
(1987)
 Complete phase out of “hard” CFCs – those with high ODP (such as
CFC-11; CFC-12). Developing countries are allowed a 10-year grace
for their phase out.
 The pressure from the demands under the Protocol has spurred
research into finding replacement for CFCs. Today, several CFC
alternatives should: be reactive in the lower atmosphere; contain
less/no chlorine; have desirable properties in terms of volatility, low
flammability and low toxicity.
 TKA 3301:
Global Air Pollution Problems
Acid Rain
 Contents
 Definition
 Causes
 Formation
 Affected Areas
 Effects
 Preventive Measures
 Definition of Acid Rain
 Precipitation that has a pH of less than that of natural
rainwater (which is about 5.6 due to dissolved carbon
dioxide).
 It is formed when sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as
gases or fine particles in the atmosphere, combine with water
vapour and precipitate as sulphuric acid or nitric acid in rain,
snow, or fog.
 Natural Acidity of Rainwater
 Pure water has a pH of 7.0 (neutral);
 However, natural, unpolluted rainwater actually has a pH of
about 5.6 (acidic)
 The acidity of rainwater comes from the natural presence of
three substances (CO2, NO, and SO2) found in the troposphere.
 CO2 is present in the greatest concentration and therefore
contributes the most to the natural acidity of rainwater.
Gas Natural Sources Concentration
Carbon dioxide Decomposition         
375 ppm
CO2
Nitric oxide
Electric discharge       0.01 ppm
NO
Sulfur dioxide
SO2 Volcanic gases        0-0.01 ppm
 Natural Rainwater
 Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid (Eqn.1).
 Carbonic acid then dissociates to give the hydrogen ion (H+) and the
hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3-) (Eqn. 2).
 The ability of H2CO3 to deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule as an
acid, thus lowering the pH of a solution.
 
Formation of Acid Rain
 Formation of Acid Rain
 When water vapor condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water
to form H2SO4 and HNO3.

 Nitric oxide (NO), is formed during lightning storms by the reaction of

nitrogen and oxygen (Eqn. 3).
 In air, NO is oxidized NO2 (Eqn. 4), which in turn reacts with water to give
nitric acid (HNO3) (Eqn. 5).
 Formation of Acid Rain
 When water vapor condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water
to form H2SO4 and HNO3.

 Nitric oxide (NO), is formed during lightning storms by the reaction of

nitrogen and oxygen (Eqn. 3).
 In air, NO is oxidized NO2 (Eqn. 4), which in turn reacts with water to give
nitric acid (HNO3) (Eqn. 5).
 Causes of Acid Rain
 The principal cause of acid rain is from human
sources
 Industrial factories, power-generating plants and
vehicles
 Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are
released during the fuel burning process (i.e.
combustion)

MSN Encarta
 Affected Areas
 Canada
 Acid rain is a problem in Canada
 Water and soil systems lack natural alkalinity such
as lime base
 Cannot neutralize acid
 Canada consists of susceptible hard rock such as
granite
 Do not have the capacity to effectively neutralize acid
rain
 Affected Areas
 Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China,
Eastern Europe and Russia and areas down-wind
from them.
 Acid rain from power plants in the Midwest United
States has also harmed the forests of upstate New
York and New England.
 This shows that the effects of acid rain can spread
over a large area, far from the source of the pollution
 Effects of Acid Rain
 Harmful to aquatic life
 Increased acidity in water bodies
 Stops eggs of certain organisms (e.g. fish) to stop
hatching
 Changes population ratios
 Affects the ecosystem
 Effects of Acid Rain
 Harmful to vegetation
 Increased acidity in soil
 Leeches nutrients from soil, slowing plant growth
 Leeches toxins from soil, poisoning plants
 Creates brown spots in leaves of trees, impeding
photosynthesis
 Allows organisms to infect through broken leaves
Effects of Acid Rain
http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/bio270/clover_leaf_burns
_pH2_30d.gif

MSN Encarta
 Effects of Acid Rain
 Accelerates weathering in metal
and stone structures
 Eg. Parthenon in Athens, Greece;
Taj Mahal in Agra, India

MSN Encarta http://www.lauraknauth.com/photos/france/thinker.jpg

 Effects of Acid Rain
 Affects human health
 Respiratory problems, asthma, dry coughs, headaches and
throat irritations
 Leeching of toxins from the soil by acid rain can be
absorbed by plants and animals. When consumed, these
toxins affect humans severely.
 Brain damage, kidney problems, and Alzheimer's disease
has been linked to people eating "toxic" animals/plants.
 Preventive Measures
 Reduce amount of sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen released into the atomosphere
 Use less energy (hence less fuel burnt)
 Use cleaner fuels
 Remove oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitrogen
before releasing
 Flue gas desulphurization
 Catalytic Converters
 Preventive Measures
 Use cleaner fuels
 Coal that contains less sulphur
 "Washing" the coal to reduce sulphur content

 Natural Gas
 Preventive Measures
 Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
 Removes sulphur dioxide from flue gas (waste gases)
 Consists of a wet scrubber and a reaction tower equipped
with a fan that extracts hot smoky stack gases from a power
plant into the tower
 Lime or limestone (calcium carbonate) in slurry form is
injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and
reacts with the sulphur dioxide present
 Preventive Measures
 (continued)
 Produces pH-neutral calcium
sulphate that is physically
removed from the scrubber
 Sulphates can be used for
industrial purposes

Scrubber at work
MSN Encarta
 Preventive Measures
 Use other sources of electricity (i.e. nuclear
power, hydro-electricity, wind energy,
geothermal energy, and solar energy)
 Issue of cost

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom.jpg
 Reducing the effects of Acid Rain
 Liming
 Powdered limestone/limewater added
to water and soil to neutralize acid
 Used extensively in Norway and
Sweden
 Expensive, short-term remedy
 Problem Scenario
 Suppose you worked in the government. A
company wants to set up a factory in your
country. It would bring jobs, but it would also
bring about pollution, which would lead to
acid rain. Would you allow it? Justify your
answer.
 [[ continued: ]]

•Acidic particles and vapours are deposited via two

processes - wet and dry deposition.

•Wet deposition is acid rain, the process by which acids with

a pH normally below 5.6 are removed from the atmosphere
in rain, snow, sleet or hail.

•Dry deposition takes place when particles such as fly ash,

sulphates, nitrates, and gases (such as SO2 and NO), are
deposited on, or absorbed onto, surfaces.

•The gases can then be converted into acids when they

contact water.
 TKA 3301:
Global Air Pollution Problems
Global Warming (GHG)
 Causes of Global Warming
 Several GHG responsible for warming, and
humans emit them in a variety of ways
 Combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories and
electricity production
 The gas responsible for the most warming - CO2
 To understand the effects of all GHG together,
scientists talk in terms of the equivalent amount
of CO2
 Gases
Greenhouse Gases NOT Greenhouse Gases

 Carbon dioxide; CO2  Nitrogen; N2

 Water; H2O  Oxygen; O2
 CFC’s  Argon; Ar
 Nitrous Oxide; N2O
 Methane; CH4
Different Types of Electromagnetic Radiation Do
Different “Things” to Molecule
 For a bending or stretching motion to
absorb IR radiation; it must change
the dipole moment of the molecule
- + -

Symmetric Stretch; Antisymmetric Stretch;

IR Inactive IR Active

- + - - + -
Infrared Spectrum of CO2
Infrared Spectrum of Water (H2O) Vapor
 Greenhouse Gas Requirements

 Minimum of 2 atoms needed for stretching

bonds
 Two atoms must be different in order for vibration
to change the dipole moment of molecule
 Minimum of 3 atoms needed to bend a
molecule
 Why Argon, Ar, Can Not Be a
Greenhouse Gas

1. Argon is in atomic form. Thus, there is no

bond to another atom. So it can’t absorb IR
to stretch a bond it doesn’t have.
2. Argon can’t absorb IR to bend a molecule
since a minimum of 3 atoms is needed and it
has only 1 atom.
 Global Warming Potential –
Represents the Relative Contribution a
Molecule Has in Global Warming

1. How Long a Molecule in the Troposphere/ Is

There a Way to Remove Molecule From
Troposphere?
2. Does the Molecule Absorb in the Window
Region?
3. Amount of Molecule in the Troposphere
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Substance GWP Tropospheric
Abundance (%)
CO2 1 0.0375
CH4 23 0.0018
N2O 296 0.00031
H2O 0.1 variable
O3 2000 0.000004
CCl3F 21000 0.000000028
CCl2F2 25000 0.000000026
 Increasing the GWP of a
Greenhouse Gas
 When a different greenhouse gas absorbs in
the window region of the IR spectrum; it will
have a higher GWP
 *Biggest Effect
 The higher the tropospheric abundance;
higher GWP
 The higher the lifetime of the molecule;
higher GWP
 Methane; CH4
Natural Sources (~40%) Man-made Sources

 Component of Natural  Oil wells

Gas  Landfills
 Decayed vegetable matter  Rice paddies
in wetlands  Cattle and sheep
 Frozen methane
hydrate cages
Methane Absorbs at the Edge of
Window Region of IR Spectrum
Methane Absorbs at the Edge of
Window Region of IR Spectrum
Nitrous Oxide, N2O; “Laughing Gas”
Manmade Sources  Absorbs in the Window
 Dental/medical Use Region of IR Spectrum
 Fertilizers

 Burning
Biomass/catalytic
converters
 Production of nylon and
nitric acid
Nitrous Oxide, N2O, Absorbs in the
Window Region of the IR Spectrum
 Nitrous Oxide Absorbs in the
Window Region of IR Spectrum
Gas Human 1896 1996 2000Conc
Cont. to Conc; Conc; ;
Global ppb ppb ppb
Warming
CO2 55 % 290,000 360,000 370,000

CFC’s 25 % 0 3 7

CH4 15 % 900 1700 1800

N2O, O3 5% 285 310 315
 Human Contribution of Different
Greenhouse Gases to Global Warming
 Feedback

 Positive; Amplifies/reinforces ongoing trend

 Negative; Diminish/reverse trend to maintain

status quo
Possible Impacts of Global Warming

 Sea Levels
 Forests
 Biodiversity
 Food Production
 Water
 Weather
 Health
Climate Change and Sea Level
 Glacier National Park
All but 37 of 150 glaciers in the park
have melted since 1850.
 Glacier National Park
1957 1998
Global Climate Change

Melting
permafrost
Coral Bleaching
 Possible Consequences of Global Warming
Highly Global Av Surface Warming
Plausible Global Avg. Precipitation Increase

Reduction in Sea Ice

Surface Winter Warming at High Altitudes

Plausible Global Sea Level Rise

More Summer Mid-altitude Drying

High Latitude Precipitation Increase

Highly Local Details of Climate Change

Uncertain Regional Distribution of Precipitation

Regional Vegetation Changes

Increase in Tropical Storm Intensity/Frequency

 Ways an Individual Can Help
Reduce Global Warming

 Reduce use of fossil fuels; car pool, use mass

transit, walk, bike
 Use energy efficient appliances and light bulbs
 Plant trees (Cool house with shade trees)
 Use solar energy to heat household as much as
possible
A major point of
disagreement of the
Kyoto Protocol is
that developing
countries do not have
to cut emissions as
much as developed
countries.

Greenhouse gas
emissions are
expected to increase
faster in developing
rather than
developed countries
 Global Warming vs. Ozone Depletion
Global Warming Ozone Depletion

Possible Altered climate and Increased skin

Consequences: agricultural cancer, damage
productivity to phytoplankton
Increased sea level
Possible Use less fossil fuel Eliminate use of
Responses: and less deforestation CFC’s
 Global Warming vs. Ozone Depletion
Global Warming Ozone Depletion

Region of the Mostly troposhere Stratosphere

Atmosphere:

Major CO2, CH4, N2O O3, O2, CFC

Substances
Involved:
Radiation Infrared radiation UV Radiation breaks
Involved: vibrates molecule & apart O2 and O3 & is
remit energy to Earth filtered in process
 Global Warming vs. Ozone Depletion
Global Warming
Nature of More greenhouse
Problem: gases increase avg
global temp
Source of CO2 released from
Problem: burning fossil fuels &
deforestation
CH4 from agriculture
Ozone Depletion
Less ozone conc
increases UV exposure
CFC’s (from
refrigerants, solvents,
foaming agents)form
Cl free radical that
destroys ozone