Chapter 4

Fostering Learning and Reinforcement

Overview of Learning Theories

Learning Through Rewards and Punishments*

Contingencies of Reinforcement*

Schedules of Reinforcement*

Social Learning Theory

Case: Henry Butts Oldsmobile

1

Nature of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in

knowledge or observable behavior that results
from practice or experience.
Importance of Learning to OB* [Not in Text]

Most organizational behavior is learned (remember that

only 2-12% of behavior is directly linked to personality)
By controlling the situation, a manager can influence
behavior/performance
The manager is held accountable for the performance of
his/her subordinates
2

Overview of the Three Types of Learning

Classical Conditioning: The learning of

involuntary, reflexive behavior, such as
emotional reactions
Operant Conditioning: The learning of voluntary,
goal-directed behavior through the direct
experience of consequences
Social Learning: The learning of voluntary, goaldirected behavior through observation and
imitation of others
3

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned
stimulus
(food)

Conditioned
stimulus
(metronome)

Reflex
response
(salivation)

Examples of Operant Behaviors

and Their Consequences

BEHAVIORS

CONSEQUENCES

The Individual

works and

is paid.

is late to work and

is docked pay.

enters a restaurant and

eats.

enters a football stadium and

watches a football game.

enters a grocery store and

buys food.

Examples of the Three Types of Learning:

Which Example Illustrates Each Type?

After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker

sees a coworker fired for excessive tardiness, resulting in
increased attention to arriving on time
After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker
receives a written reprimand for being late twice in one
month, resulting in increased attention to arriving on time
After witnessing a coworkers accidental loss of several
fingers in a machinery accident, a worker experiences
anxiety when operating the same piece of machinery
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Contingency of Reinforcement*

Definition: The relationship between a behavior and the

preceding and following environmental events that influence
that behavior
Basic Components:

Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the behavior

Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to the stimulus
Consequence -- the positive or negative consequence of the behavior

Important Note: Managers can often control the

contingencies of reinforcement influencing their
subordinates behavior, and thereby, the behavior itself

Example of Contingent Reinforcement

NO
Manager and
employee
set goal

Does employee
achieve goal?

YES
Antecedent
(precedes the
behavior)

Manager is silent or
reprimands employee

Employee
Task
Behavior

Manager compliments
employee for
accomplishment

Consequences Reinforcement
(result of the Contingent
behavior)
on Consequence

Categories of Reinforcers

All reinforcers fall into one of two categories:

Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the satisfaction of

physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, escape
from pain, etc. (Note that the text defines this as: an
event for which the individual already knows the
value.)
Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers; the text
defines this as an event that once had neutral value but
has taken on some positive or negative value for an
individual because of past experience.
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Types of Contingencies of Reinforcement*

Event is Added

Event is Removed

(best to use)

Pleasant
Event
Unpleasant
Event

Positive
reinforcement
(increases behavior)

Punishment
(decreases behavior)

(worst to use)

Omission
(decreases behavior)

Negative
reinforcement
(increases behavior)

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Rewards Used by Organizations

MATERIAL REWARDS
Pay
Pay raises
Stock options
Profit sharing
Deferred compensation
Bonuses/bonus plans
Incentive plans
Expense accounts

SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS
Company automobiles
Health insurance plans
Pension contributions
Vacation and sick leave
Recreation facilities
Child care support
Club privileges
Parental leave

SOCIAL/INTERPERSONAL REWARDS
Praise
Developmental feedback
Smiles, pats on the back, and
other nonverbal signals
Requests for suggestions
Invitations to coffee or lunch
Wall plaques

REWARDS FROM
THE TASK
Sense of achievement
Jobs with more responsibility
Job autonomy/self-direction
Performing important tasks

STATUS SYMBOLS
Corner offices
Offices with windows
Carpeting
Drapes
Paintings
Watches
Rings
Private restrooms
SELF-ADMINISTERED
REWARDS
Self-congratulation
Self-recognition
Self-praise
Self-development through
expanded knowledge/skills
Greater sense of self-worth

11

Negative Reinforcement*

Definition: An unpleasant event is occurring which can be

removed by emitting the desired behavior
Differs from punishment, but may result from the fear of
punishment
Two types are identified:

Escape Learning: An unpleasant event occurs until the employee

emits an escape response to terminate it
Avoidance Learning: An employee prevents an unpleasant event
from occurring by emitting the proper behavior [Not in Text]

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Potential Negative Effects of Punishment*

Recurrence
of undesirable
employee behavior
Undesirable
emotional reaction

Antecedent

Undesirable
employee
behavior

Punishment
by
manager

Short-term
But
decrease in leads to
frequency long-term
of
undesirable
employee
behavior

Aggressive,
disruptive
behavior
Apathetic,
noncreative
performance
Fear of
manager

Which tends
to reinforce

High turnover
and absenteeism

13

Punishment and Interpersonal Relations*

[Not in Text]

The inappropriate use of punishment increases

with:

Anger and/or frustration on the part of the manager

Inadequate interpersonal communication

In such cases, this inappropriate punishment

creates long term interpersonal problems, by:

Reducing trust
Stifling motivation
Undermining and/or destroying relationships
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How to Make Punishment Effective

Managers should:

Use the principles of contingent punishment, immediate

punishment, and punishment size
Praise in public, punish in private
Develop alternative desired behavior
Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events
Use positive discipline (i.e., change behavior through
reasoning, with an emphasis on personal responsibility or
self control, rather than by imposing increasingly severe
punishments)
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Guidelines for Using

Contingencies of Reinforcement
Managers should:

Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take individual

differences into account to reward employees with
consequences that they personally value, within the
constraints of perceived equity)
Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions
Make employees aware of what behavior will be
reinforced (and then be sure to reinforce it uniformly)
Let employees know what they are doing wrong
Not punish in front of others
Make their response equal to workers behavior

16

Schedules of Reinforcement*

Definition: The determination of when reinforcers are

applied; after every response or only after some responses
Two general categories of schedule are:

Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced; the

simplest schedule
Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are
reinforced; four types are identified in the text:

Fixed Interval: based on a fixed time interval

Fixed Ratio: based on a fixed number of responses
Variable Interval: based on a variable time interval
Variable Ratio: based on a variable number of responses

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Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

FORM OF
REWARD

INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE

Fixed interval

Reward on fixed
time basis

Leads to average
and irregular
performance

Fixed ratio

Reward tied to
specific number of
responses

Moderately fast
Leads quickly to
extinction of
very high and
stable performance behavior

Variable interval

Reward given after

varying periods of
time

Leads to
moderately high
and stable
performance

Slow extinction of
behavior

Variable ratio

Reward given for

some behaviors

Leads to very high

performance

Very slow
extinction of
behavior

SCHEDULE

EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
Fast extinction of
behavior

18

Social Learning Theory

Learning viewed as knowledge acquisition through

the mental processing of information
Individuals learn voluntary behaviors by observing
the behavior/consequences of others, cognitively
processing that information, and then imitating, or
not repeating, that behavior

19

Self-Efficacy

Self-Control

Vicarious Learning

Forethought

Symbolizing

Five Dimensions of
Social Learning Theory

20

Explanation of the
Five Dimensions of Social Learning Theory

People use symbols as cognitive models that serve to guide

their behavior
People use forethought to anticipate, plan, and guide their
behaviors and actions
People learn vicariously (indirectly) by observing the
behavior of others and the real or imagined consequences
of those behaviors
People exhibit self-control by taking personal
responsibility to learn new behavior even though there is no
external pressure to do so
People have differing levels of self-efficacy, which
differentially influences their learning and behavior
21

Self-Efficacy*
Definition: Refers to the individuals confidence in
their ability to perform a specific task in a specific
situation

Varies by people and tasks

Strongly influences learning, with higher levels
facilitating learning by enhancing goal setting, effort,
and persistence toward success
Managers can and should influence subordinates selfefficacy levels
22

Self-Efficacy at Work
HIGH
Past
Accomplishments

Performance
of Others

Emotional
State

I know I can do the job

and have outstanding
quality

Self-efficacy

I dont think I can do the

job on time and have
outstanding quality

Set goals
Preserve/practice
Creatively solve
problems
Visualize success
Learn from failure

LOW
Avoid difficult tasks
Think of excuses
for failing
Develop low
aspirations
Quit
Blame setbacks on
lack of ability or luck

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How Managers Can Apply

Social Learning Theory
Managers should:

Identify behaviors that lead to improved performance

Select an appropriate model
Make sure that employees have requisite skills
Create a positive learning situation
Provide positive consequences for successful
performance (i.e., reinforcement)
Develop organizational support for new behaviors
(i.e., maintain proper contingencies of reinforcement)
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Henry Butts Oldsmobile Case Questions

1.
2.
3.

How effective is Henry Butts management strategy?

Which component of this strategy is now illegal? What is
used in its place?
Identify or speculate on examples in the case of the
following concepts from the chapter:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Operant learning; social learning

Secondary reinforcement
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment
Escape or avoidance learning
Continuous, fixed ratio, and fixed or variable interval
reinforcement schedules

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