BUS 332

Scientific Research Techniques

Main Textbook:
William G. Zikmunds
Business Research Methods
Lectured by
Prof. Dr. Ltfihak Alpkan
Gebze Institute of Technology

WEEK DATE

TEACHING PLAN

20. 02 Introduction

27. 02 Ch. 9: Survey Research: An Overview

05.03 Ch. 10: Survey Research: Communication with Respondents

12.03 Ch. 11: Observation Methods

19.03 Ch. 12: Experimental Research

26.03 General overview

02.04

09.04 Ch. 13: Measurement and Scaling

16.04 Ch. 14: Attitute Measurement

11

30.04 Ch. 15: Questionnaire Design 1

12

07.05 Ch. 15: Questionnaire Design 2

13

14. 05 General overview

14

21.05

MIDTERM EXAM 1

MIDTERM EXAM 2

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 9:
Survey Research

Chapter 9:
Survey Research
1. Basic Definitions for surveys
2. Errors in Surveys
3. Classification of Survey Methods

1. Basic Definitions for surveys

Survey: a research technique in which information
(primary data) is gathered from a sample of
people to make generalizations.
Primary data: data gathered and assembled
specifically for the project at hand.
Sample of the survey: respondents who are asked to
provide information, assuming that they can
represent (possess same features with) a target
population.

Selecting a Sample
Sample:
Subset of a larger population

SAMPLE

Sampling:
POPULATION
Who is to be sampled?
How large a sample?
How will sample units be selected?

Basic Definitions for sampling

(http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html)
Target population: the group about which the
researcher wishes to draw conclusions and make
generalizations
Random sampling: selecting a sample from a
larger target population where each respondent is
chosen entirely by chance and each member of
the population has a known, but possibly nonequal, chance of being included in the sample.

Basic Definitions for data collection

Surveys ask respondents (who are the subjects of the
research) questions by use of a questionnaire.
Respondent: The person who provides information
(primary data) by answering a questionnaire or an
interviewers questions.
Questionnaire: a list of structured questions designed
by the researchers for the purpose of codifying and
analyzing the respondents answers scientifically.
Advantages of Surveys: Quick, Inexpensive, Efficient,
Accurate, Flexible way of gathering information.

2. Errors in Surveys
2.1. Random Sampling Error
2.2. Systematic Error (sample bias)
2.2.1. Respondent error
* Nonresponse bias
* Response bias
2.2.2. Administrative error
* Data processing error
* Sample selection error
* Interviewer error
* Interviewer cheating

2.1. Random Sampling Error

Even if randomly selected, samples may possess
different characteristics than the target population
(the likelihood of bias is reduced but still exists)
This is a statistical fluctuation due to chance
variation.
Then, an important difference occurs between the
findings obtained from this sample and the
findings obtained from a possible census of the
whole target population.

 Consider the hypothetic case in which a study

sample could be increased until it was infinitely
large; chance variation of the mean, or random
error, would be reduced toward zero. These are
random errors.
Systematic errors would not be diminished by
increasing sample size.
(Bias in Research Studies,
http://radiology.rsna.org/content/238/3/780.full)

2.2. Systematic Error

Systematic error results from some mistake(s) done
in the design and/or execution of the research.
All types of error -except random sampling error,
are included in this definition,
Sample bias: a persistent tendency for the results
of a sample to deviate in one direction from the
true value of the population parameter.
Sample bias can arise when the intended sample
does not adequately reflect the spectrum of
characteristics in the target population.

2.2.1. Respondent Bias

A classification of sample bias resulting
from some respondent action or inaction
Nonresponse bias
Response bias

Nonresponse Error
Nonrespondents: in almost every survey information
from a small or large portion of the sample cannot be
collected. These are those people who refuse to
respond, or who can not be contacted (not-at-homes)
Self-selection bias: only those people who are
interested strongly with topic of the survey may
respond while those who are still within the same
sample but indeferent or afraid avoid participating.
This leads to the over-representation of some extreme
positions, but under-representation of others.

Response Bias
A bias that occurs when respondents tend to
answer questions with a certain inclination
or viewpoint that consciously (deliberate
falsification) or unconsciously
(unconscious misinterpretation)
misrepresents the truth.

Reasons of response bias

Knowingly or unknowingly people who
answer questions of the interviewer may
feel unconfortable about the truth that they
share with others, and change it in their
responses.
They may desire to show themselves as
more intelligent, wealthy, sensitive, etc. than
they really are.

Types of Response Bias

Deliberate falsification (consciously false answers)
Acquiescence bias (positive answers)
Extremity bias (exaggerated answers)
Interviewer bias (answers acceptable by the interviewer)
Auspices bias (answers acceptable by the organization)
Social desirability bias (answers creating a favorable impression)

2.2.2. Administrative Error

Unadvertently or carelessly improper
administration and execution of the research
task
Blunders are:
Confusion
Neglect
Omission

Types of Administrative Errors

Data processing error: incorrect data entry, computer
programming, or other procedural errors during the
analysis stage.
Sample selection error: improper sample design (e.g.
based on incomplete databases) or sampling procedure
execution (e.g. executed in daytime while most of the
target population are working)
Interviewer error: mistakes done by the interviewer (e.g.
taking wrong or incomplete notes about the answers of
the respondents.
Interviewer cheating: filling in fake or false answers
indeed not given by the respondents.

3. Classification of Survey Methods

3.1. Structure of the questionnaire:
* whether standardized questions with a limited
number of allowable answer -multiple choices
* or unstandardized open ended questions with the
possibility of being answered in numerious ways.
3.2. Level of Directness of the questions:
* whether direct/undisguised questions
* or indirect/disguised questions to hide the real
purpose of the survey

Classification of Survey Methods

3.3. Time basis of the Survey:
Cross-Sectional Study: data on various segments of a target
population are collected at a single moment in time to make
comparisons among segments.
Longitudinal Study: data are collected at different times from
the similar respondents to compare trends and identify
changes.
Panel Study: A longitudinal survey of exactly the same
respondents to record (in a diary) their attitudes, behaviors,
or purchasing habits over time.

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods

Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods
* Comparison of Basic Communication Methods in Surveys:
* Questionnaires administered by an interviewer
1. Door-to door interviews
2. Mall intercepts
3. Telephone interviews
* Self-administered questionnaires
4. Questionnaires sent by mail, fax, or e-mail
5. Internet questionnaires

1. Door-to-Door Personal
Interview
Speed of data collection Questionnaire length
Moderate to fast

Long

Geographical flexibility Item non-response

Limited to moderate

Low

Respondent cooperation Possibility of

respondent
Excellent
misunderstanding
Versatility of
Lowest
questioning
Quite versatile

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Degree of interviewer influence of answer: High
Supervision of interviewers: Moderate
Anonymity of respondent: Low
Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult
Cost: Highest
Special features: Visual materials may be shown
or demonstrated; extended probing possible

1. Mall Intercept Personal

Interview
Speed of data collection: Fast
Geographical flexibility: Confined, urban bias
Respondent cooperation: Moderate to low
Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile
Questionnaire length: Moderate to long
Item non-response: Medium
Possibility of respondent misunderstanding: Lowest

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Degree of interviewer influence of answers: Highest
Supervision of interviewers: Moderate to high
Anonymity of respondent: Low
Ease of call back or follow-up: Difficult
Cost: Moderate to high
Special features: Taste test, viewing of TV
commercials possible

3. Telephone Surveys
Speed of Data Collection: Very fast
Geographical Flexibility: High
Respondent Cooperation: Good
Versatility of Questioning: Moderate
Questionnaire Length: Moderate
Item Non-response: Medium
Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding: Average
Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer: Moderate

Telephone Surveys
Supervision of interviewers: High, especially with central
location WATS (Wide Area Telecommunications Service)
interviewing
Anonymity of respondent: Moderate
Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy
Cost: Low to moderate
Special features: Fieldwork and supervision of data collection
are simplified; quite adaptable to computer technology (e.g.
Central location interviewing, Computer-assisted telephone
interviewing, Computerized voice-activated interviews)

Self-Administered
Questionnaires
S E L F -A D M IN IS T E R E D
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
PAPER
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
M A IL

IN -P E R S O N
D R O P -O F F

IN S E R T S

E L E C T R O N IC
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S
FAX

E -M A IL

IN T E R N E T
W E B S IT E

K IO S K

4. Mail Surveys
Speed of data collection: Researcher has no control over
return of questionnaire; slow
Geographical flexibility: High
Respondent cooperation: Moderate but, poorly
designed questionnaire will have low response rate
Versatility of questioning: Highly standardized format
Questionnaire length: Varies depending on incentive
Item non-response: High

Mail Surveys
Possibility of respondent misunderstanding:
Highest--no interviewer present for clarification
Degree of interviewer influence of answer: None interviewer absent
Supervision of interviewers: Not applicable
Anonymity of respondent: High
Ease of call back or follow-up: Easy, but takes time
Cost: Lowest

5. E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

Speed of data collection: Instantaneous

Geographic flexibility: worldwide
Cheaper distribution and processing costs
Flexible, but
Extensive differences in the capabilities of
respondents computers and e-mail software limit
the types of questions and the layout

E-mails are not secure and eavesdropping can

possibly occur
Respondent cooperation
Varies depending if e-mail is seen as spam

6. Internet Surveys
A self-administered questionnaire posted on a Web site.
Respondents provide answers to questions displayed
online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or
keying in an answer.

Internet Surveys

Speed of data collection: Instantaneous

Geographic flexibility: worldwide
Cost effective, visual and interactive
Respondent cooperation
Varies depending on web site
Varies depending on type of sample
When user does not opt-in or expect a voluntary survey
cooperation is low.
Self-selection problems in web site visitation surveys participants tend to be more deeply involved than the
average person.

Internet Surveys
Versatility of questioning: Extremely versatile
Questionnaire length: varying according to the answers of
each respondent
Item non-response: Software can assure none
Possibility for respondent misunderstanding: High
Interviewer influence of answers: None
Supervision of interviewers: not required
Anonymity of Respondent: Respondent can be anonymous
or known
Ease of Callback or Follow-up: difficult unless e-mail
address is known
Special Features: allows graphics and streaming media

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 11:
Observation Methods

Chapter 11:
Observation Methods
1. Types of Observed Phenomena
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation
3. Types of Observation Techniques

1. Types of Observed Phenomena

Physical actions
Verbal behavior
Expressive behavior
Spatial relations and locations
Temporal patterns
Verbal and pictorial records

Examples for Observed Phenomena

Phenomena

Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers (buyers) movement

action
pattern in a store
Verbal behavior

Statements made by
airline travelers who wait
in line

Expressive behavior

Facial expressions, tone of

voice, and other form of
body language

Examples for Observed Phenomena

Phenomena

Example

Spatial relations
and locations

How close visitors at an

art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns

How long fast-food customers

wait for their order to be served

Physical objects

What brand name items are

stored in consumers pantries

Verbal and Pictorial

Records

Bar codes on product packages

2. Advantages and Disadvantages

of Observation
YOU SEE, BUT YOU
DO NOT OBSERVE.
Sherlock Holmes

2.1. Benefits of Observing Human Behavior

Communication with respondent is not
necessary
Data without distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
No need to rely on respondents memory
Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained

Benefits of Observing Human Behavior

Certain data may be obtained more quickly

Environmental conditions may be recorded
May be combined with survey to provide
supplemental evidence

2.2. Limitations of Observing

Human Behavior
Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
Interpretation of data may be a problem (e.g.
misinterpretation)
Not all activity can be recorded
Only short periods can be observed
Observer bias possible (e.g. selective perception)
Possible invasion of privacy

selective perception

selective perception

misinterpretation

3. Types of Observation Techniques

Natural versus Contrived Observation
Direct versus Indirect Observation
Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation
Physical-trace evidence Observation
Mechanical Observation

3.1.Natural versus Contrived Observation

Natural Observation:
Reactions and behavior observed as they
occur naturally in real-life situations
A wide variety of companies are sending
researchers to the field to observe consumers
in their natural environment.
Natural observation is also suited for
ethnographic research on foreign cultures.

Contrived Observation:
Environment artificially set up by the researcher.
Researchers are increasingly relying on computers to
conduct simulated market testing.
Offers a greater degree of control
Speedy
Efficient
Less expensive

However, it may be questionable as to whether or not

the data collected does truly reflect a "real life"
situation.

3.2. Direct versus Indirect Observation

Direct observation captures actual behavior or phenomenon
of interest
Indirect observation consists of examining the results of the
phenomenon.
can give only relatively crude or imprecise indications of
a phenomenon
More efficient use of research time
More efficient use of research budget
May be the only way to get data from situations
impractical to observe directly.

3.3. Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation

Nondisguised observation:
Respondents are aware that they are being
observed
Data may be contaminated by respondentinduced errors.
Data gathered through using disguised
observation might not be as rich as those
from nondisguised observation.

Disguised Observation
Respondents are unaware they are being
observed
Allows for monitoring of the true reactions of
individuals.
Unethical if disguised observation monitors
Normally private behaviors
Behaviors that may not be voluntarily revealed to
researchers.

 Mystery shopping
popular disguised observational technique
Mystery shopper
Unknown to the retail establishment
Visits the store
Uses a structured script
Observes and records the shopping
experience.

3.4. Physical-trace evidence

Observation
Wear and tear of a book indicates
how often it has been read
garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns
in garbage
detecting store traffic patterns by observing the
wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the
floor (short term)

3.5. Types of Mechanical Observation

Eye-Tracking
Response Latency
Voice Pitch Analysis
People Meter
Psychogalvanometer
Monitoring Web Site Traffic

Eye Tracking
Measures unconscious eye movements
Records how the subject actually reads or views an
advertisement, product packaging, promotional
displays, websites, etc.
Measures which sections attract customers' attention
and how much time they spend looking at those
sections
Oculometers - what the subject is looking at
Pupilometers - how interested is the viewer (This
device observes and records changes in the diameter of
the subjects pupils)

Voice Pitch Analysis

Measures emotional reactions through physiological
changes in a persons voice
Used to determine
how strongly a respondent feels about an answer
how much emotional commitment is attached to an answer.

Variations from normal voice pitch is considered a

measure of emotional commitment to the question's
answer.

Response Latency
It measures the speed with which a respondent
gives a decision about a choice between
alternatives
It records the decision time necessary to make
this choice.
For instance: it can measure the effectiveness of
an advertisement on brand preferences.
It assumes that a quick expression of brand
preference indicates a stronger preference.

People Meter
Electronic device to monitor television
viewing behavior
who is watching
what shows are being watched.

Psychogalvanometer
Measures galvanic skin response
Involuntary changes in the electrical
resistance of the skin
Assumption: physiological changes
accompany emotional reactions

Business
Research Methods
Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler

Chapter 12.1.:
Basics of Experimental Research

Chapter 12.1.:
Experimental Research
1. Basics of Experiment & Causality
2. Advantages and disadvantages of the
experimental method
3. Steps of a well-planned experiment
4. Validity in experiments

1.Basics of Experiment & Causality

1.1. Definition of Experiment:
An experiment is a study involving intervention by
the researcher beyond that required for
measurement.
The usual intervention is to manipulate some
variable in a setting and observe how it affects the
participants or subjects being studied.
There is at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable in a causal relationship.

1.2. Causal Evidence

There are three types of evidence necessary to
support causality.
Agreement between
Independent and Dependent Variables

Time order of occurrence

Extraneous variables
did not influence Dependent Variables

1.2.1. Agreement between

Independent and Dependent Variables

First, there must be an agreement between

independent and dependent variables.
The presence or absence of one is associated with
the presence or absence of the other.

1.2.2. Time order of occurrence

Second, beyond the correlation of independent and
dependent variables, we consider the time order of the
occurrence of the variables.
The effect on the dependent variable should not precede
the manipulation of the independent variable.
The effect and manipulation may occur simultaneously
or the manipulation may occur before the effect.

1.2.3. Extraneous variables

did not influence Dependent Variables
The third source of support comes when researchers are
confident that other extraneous variables did not
influence the dependent variable.
To ensure that these other variables are not the source of
influence, researchers control their ability to confound
the planned comparison.

2. Advantages and disadvantages of

the experimental method
Advantages
Ability to manipulate
Independent Variable
Use of control group
Control of extraneous
variables
Replication possible
Field experiments
possible

Disadvantages
Artificiality of labs
Non-representative
sample
Expensive
Focus on present and
immediate future
Ethical limitations

2.1.Explanation of Some Advantages of

Experiments
Replication: is the process of repeating an
experiment with different participant groups and
conditions to determine the average effect of the
Independent Variables across people, situations,
and times.
A field experiment: is a study of the dependent
variable in actual environmental conditions.

2.2.Explanation of Some Disadvantages of

Experiments
The artificiality of a lab is possibly the greatest
disadvantage of experiments.
Also, experiments typically use small convenience
samples which cannot be generalized to a larger
population.
Compared to surveys, they are expensive.
They also cannot deal with past events or predict
events in the far-off future.
Finally, marketing research is often concerned with
the study of people and there are limits to the types of
manipulation and controls that are ethical.

3. Steps of a well-planned
experiment
Specify treatment variables
Specify treatment levels
Control environment
Choose experimental design
Select and assign participants
Pilot-test, revise, and test
Collect data
Analyze data

Steps of a well-planned experiment

The activities the researcher must accomplish to make
an experiment a success:
3.1. Specify treatment variables:
a) select variables that are the best operational
definitions of the original concepts,
b) determine how many variables to test,
c) select or design appropriate measures for the chosen
variables.
The selection of measures for testing requires a
thorough review of the available literature and
instruments.

3.2. Specify treatment levels:

In an experiment, participants experience a
manipulation of the independent variable, called the
experimental treatment.
The treatment levels are the arbitrary or natural groups
the researcher makes within the independent variable.
A control group is a group of participants that is
measured but not exposed the independent variable
being studied.
A control group can provide a base level for
comparison.

3.3. Control environment:

Environmental control means holding the physical
environment of the experiment constant. When
participants do not know if they are receiving the
experimental treatment, they are said to be blind.
When neither the participant nor the researcher knows,
the experiment is said to be double-blind.
3.4. Choose experimental design:
The design is then selected. Several designs are discussed
on the next several slides.

3.5. Select and assign participants:

The participants selected for the experiment should be
representative of the population to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the studys results.
Random assignment is required to make the groups as
comparable as possible.
Random assignment uses a randomized sample frame for
assigning participants to experimental and control
groups.
Matching is an equalizing process for assigning
participants to experimental and control groups.

 3.5.1. Random assignment :

The sampling frame is often small for experiments
and the participants may be self-selected.
However, if randomization is used, those assigned to
the experimental group are likely to be similar to
those assigned to the control group.
Random assignment allows one to make the groups as
comparable as possible.
It means that participants have an equal and known
chance of being assigned to any of the groups in the
experiment.

3.5.2. Matching :
Matching is a control procedure to ensure that
experimental and control groups are equated on one or
more variables before the experiment.
The object of matching is to have each experimental and
control participant matched on every characteristic used
in the research. Matching employs a nonprobability
quota sampling approach.
Quota matrix is a means of visualizing the matching
process. If matching does not alleviate assignment
problems, a combination of matching, randomization,
and increasing the sample size may be useful.

Quota Matrix
Example

Exhibit 10-3 presents an

example of a quota
matrix.
One-third of the
participants from each
cell of the matrix would
be assigned to each of
the tree groups.

4. Validity in Experimentation
Internal validity exists when the conclusions
drawn about a demonstrated experimental
relationship truly implies cause.
External validity exists when an observed causal
relationship can be generalized across persons,
settings, and times.

4.1.Threats to Internal Validity

There are twelve possible threats to internal validity:
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Selection
Statistical regression
Experimental mortality
Diffusion or imitation of treatment
Compensatory equalization
Compensatory rivalry
Resentful Demoralization of the disadvantaged
Local history
http://cde.annauniv.edu/CourseMat/mba/sem2/dba1657/val.html

Threats to internal validity

History: In the experimental designs a control
measurement (O1) of dependent variable is taken before
introducing the manipulation (X).
After the manipulation an after measurement (O2) of the
dependent variable is taken. Then the difference between
O1 and O2 is attributed to the manipulation. (See also One
Group Pretest-Posttest Design)
However some events may occur during the course of the
experimental study, which will affect the relationship
between the variables under the study.

Threats to internal validity

Maturation: Changes may also occur within the
participant that are a function of the passage of time
and are not specific to any particular event.
A participant may become hungry, bored, or tired and
these conditions can affect response results.
Testing: The process of taking a test can affect the
scores of a second test. For instance, repeatedly taking
(the same or similar) intelligence tests usually leads to
score gains.

Threats to internal validity

Instrumentation: This threat to internal validity
results from changes between observations in either the
measuring instrument or the observer.
Selection: Differential selection of subjects for
experimental and control groups affects the validity.
Validity considerations require the groups to be
equivalent in every aspect.
The problem can be overcome by randomly assigning
the subjects to experimental and control groups. In
addition matching can be done. Matching the members
of the groups on key factors also enhances the
equivalence of the groups.

Threats to internal validity

Statistical regression: This factor operates especially
when groups have been selected by their extreme
scores.
For example, when children with the worst reading
scores are selected to participate in a reading course,
improvements at the end of the course might not be
due to the course's effectiveness.
Experimental mortality: This occurs when the
composition of the study groups changes during the
test. Some participants may drop out the experiment.

Threats to internal validity

Diffusion or imitation of treatment: If people in
the experimental and control groups talk, then those
in the control group may learn of the treatment. This
eliminates the difference between the groups.
Compensatory equalization: Where the
experimental treatment is much more desirable for
the experimental group, there may be an
administrative reluctance to deprive the control
group members. Actions to compensate the control
group may confound the experiment.

Threats to internal validity

Compensatory rivalry: This may occur when
members of the control group know they are in
the control group. This may generate competitive
pressures, causing the control group members to
try harder. (e.g. Hawthorne effect )
Resentful demoralization of the
disadvantaged: When the treatment is desirable
and the experiment is conspicuous, control group
members may become resentful that they are
deprived and lower their cooperation and output.

Threats to internal validity

Local history: The regular history effect

already mentioned impacts both experimental
and control groups alike.
When one assigns all experimental persons to
one group session and all control group people
to another, there is a chance for some peculiar
event to confound results.

4.2.Threats to External Validity

External validity is concerned with the interaction of
the experimental treatment (X) with other factors and
the resulting impact on the ability to generalize to (and
across) times, settings, or persons.
External validity is high when the results of an
experiment are applicable to a larger population.
Three major threats to external validity are as follows:
Reactivity of testing on X
Interaction of selection and X
Other reactive factors

Reactivity of testing on X
The reactive effect refers to sensitizing participants
via a pretest so that they respond to the experimental
stimulus (X) in a different way.
For instance, people who participate in a web survey
may then be sensitized to store displays and
organization.

Interaction of selection and X

The process by which test participants are selected for
an experiment may be a threat to external validity.
The population from which one selects participants
may not be the same as the population to which one
wishes to generalize the results.
It limits the generalizability of the findings.

Other reactive factors

The experimental settings themselves may have a
biasing effect on a participants response to X.
An artificial setting can produce results that are not
representative of larger populations.
If participants know they are participating in an
experiment, there may be a tendency to role-play in a
way that distorts the effects of X.
Another reactive effect is the possible interaction
between X and participant characteristics.

Business
Research Methods
Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler

Chapter 12.2.:
Types of Experimental
Research Designs

Chapter 12.2.:
Types of Experimental
Research Designs
1. Pre-experiments
2. True experiments
3. Field experiments

X refers to the treatment or manipulation of the

independent variable (more than one X refers to a
different level of treatment).
O refers to the observation or measurement of the
dependent variable.
Experimental designs vary widely in their power to
control contamination of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
Experiments can be categorized as pre-experiments,
true experiments, and field experiments based on the
characteristic of control.

1. Pre-experiment
Pre-experimental research designs are research
designs that are characterized by a lack of random
selection and assignment.
Types of Pre-experiments:
After-Only Case Study
One Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Static Group Comparison

1.1. After-Only Case Study

X

In this type of experimental design only one

treatment (X) or manipulation is done on the
independent variable.
Then, the dependent variable is measured.

An example is a media campaign about a products

features without a prior measurement of consumer
knowledge.
Results would reveal only how much target consumers
know after the media campaign, but there is no way to
judge the effectiveness of the campaign.
The lack of a pretest and control group makes this
design inadequate for establishing causality.

1.2. One Group Pretest-Posttest Design

O1

O2

This design meets the threats to internal validity better

than the one-shot case study, but it is still a weak design.
For example, a researcher examining the effect of a
commercial on brand liking would begin by taking a
pre-test to determine current levels of brand liking
among the participants.

O1

O2

The commercial would be shown.

Then a post-test would measure brand liking after the
commercial.
A comparison between the post-test and the pre-test
shows the change in liking.
However, any changes in liking are not necessarily due
to the commercial.
The act of giving a pre-test could have influenced liking
(testing effect).

1.3. Static Group Comparison

Experimental Group:

Control Group:

O1
O2

This design provides for two groups, one of

which receives the experimental stimulus while
the other serves as a control.

For example, imagine that a new type of cheeseburger

is being introduced, and an advertisement campaign is
run.
After the ad airs, those who remember seeing it would
be in the experimental group (X). Those who have no
recall of the ad would be in the control group.
The intent of each group to purchase the cheeseburger
would be measured.
The main weakness of this design is that there is no
way to be certain that the two groups are equivalent or
that the individuals are representative.

2. True experiment
A true experiment is a method of social research in
which there are two kinds of variables. The
independent variable is manipulated by the
experimenter, and the dependent variable is measured.
The signifying characteristic of a true experiment is
that it randomly allocates the subjects in order to
neutralize the potential to ensure equivalence.
There is also a control group for comparison.
Types of True experiments:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Posttest-Only Control Group Design

2.1.Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Experimental Group:
Control Group:

O1 X O2
R O3
O4

The symbol R means that the true experimental designs

use randomly assigned groups to ensure equivalence.
The effect of the experimental is: E = (O2-O1) (O4-O3).
This design deals with many of the threats to internal
validity, but local history, maturation, and
communication among groups can still lead to problems.
External validity is threatened because there is a chance
for a reactive effect from testing.

2.2. Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Experimental Group:
Control Group:

X
R

O1
O2

In this design, the pretest measurements are omitted.

Pretests are well established in classical research design
but are not really necessary when it is possible to
randomize.
The experimental effect is measured by the difference
between O1 and O2.
Internal validity threats from history, maturation,
selection, and statistical regression are controlled
adequately by the random assignment.
Different mortality rates could cause a problem.

Example for Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Buick dealerships wish to determine the effectiveness
of a special test-drive incentive.
Buick dealerships nationwide are randomly assigned
to either the control group or the experimental group.
Those in the experimental group use a promotion to
encourage test drives.
The control group does not use any such promotions.
The number of test drives throughout are measured
and compared to determine if the promotion resulted
in significantly more test drives.

3. Field experiment
Experiment conducted in a natural setting (e.g. on
a sports field during play). The conditions of field
experiments are usually very difficult to replicate.
Types of Field experiments:
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design
Group Time Series Design

3.1. Nonequivalent Control Group Design

Experimental Group:
Control Group:

O1
O3

O2
O4

This is a strong and widely used quasiexperimental design.

It differs from the pretest and posttest control
group design because the test and control groups
are not randomly assigned.
There are two varieties: intact equivalent design
and self-selected experimental group design.

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

In the intact equivalent design, the membership of
the experimental and control groups is naturally
assembled.
The self-selected experimental group design is
weaker because volunteers are recruited to form the
experimental group, while non-volunteer
participants are used for control.
A comparison of the pretest results for each group
is one indicator of the degree of equivalence
between test and control groups.

Example for Nonequivalent Control Group Design

For example, children from two different classes in
school may be asked to test a toy.
Participants are pre-tested on their interest in the toy.
The experimental group spends time playing with the
toy while the control group is not exposed to the toy.
A post-test then measures interest in the toy.

3.2.Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design

Experimental Group:
Control Group:

R
R

O1 (X)
X O2

This design is most applicable when we cannot know when and to whom to introduce the
treatment but we can decide when and whom to measure.
The parenthesized treatment (X) means that the experimenter cannot control exposure to the
treatment.
This is not a strong design because several threats to internal validity are not handled
adequately.
History can confound the results.

Example for Separate Sample PretestPosttest Design

For example, an new advertising campaign for a

prescription drug is introduced on television.
Awareness of the brand name is measured prior to
the campaign introduction. After the campaign
ends, awareness is measured again.

3.3. Group Time Series Design

R
R

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12

A time series design introduces repeated observations before and after

treatment and allows participants to act as their own controls.
The single treatment group design has before-after measurements as the
only controls.
There is also a multiple design with two or more comparison groups as
well as the repeated measurements in each treatment group.

 This format is especially useful where regularly kept

records are a natural part of the environment and are
unlikely to be reactive.
The time series approach is also good way to study
unplanned events in an ex post facto manner.
The internal validity problem for this design is
history. To reduce this risk, we keep a record of
possible extraneous factors and attempt to adjust the
result to reflect their influence.
For example, if the government were to begin price
controls, we could still study the effects of this action
on gasoline prices later if we had regularly collected
records for the period before and after the advent of
price control.