MOLECULES OF

LIFE
CHAPTER 2

GROUP 1

 The

universe is made up of matter which

is anything that contains mass. Matter
is composed of elements, substances
which cannot be broken down by
ordinary chemical means into simpler
particles. An atom is the smallest unit of
an element that retains the chemical
properties of that element.

92 occurring elements, six are used in

quantity by living organisms.
65%-oxygen(living matter)
18%-carbon
10%-hydrogen
3%-nitrogen
4%-phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium,
iron, magnesium, sodium, chlorine(other
elements)

 MOLECULE- the resulting substance when two or

more atoms chemically combine.
EX: molecule of water, H2O, consist of two atoms of
hydrogen bonded together to a single atom of oxygen.
THREE IMPORTANT CHEMICAL BONDS EXIST:
IONIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDS
HYDROGEN BONDS

 IONIC

BONDS- an atom with a few electrons in its centremost

orbital, may lose some to the outermost orbital of another atom

that lacks a few electrons to complete its stable number.
ELECTRON DONOR- the atom that gives up its electrons.
-are usually the atoms with more than 4 electrons in their
outermost orbital.
-ends up with more protons than electrons thereby becoming
positively charged(+).
ELECTRON ACCEPTOR- the atom receiving.
-are those with less than 4.
-ends up with more electrons than protons and becomes
negatively charged(-).
IONS- charged atoms.

COVALENT BONDS- atoms forming covalent bonds share

electrons.
ex: water is a molecule formed by the covalent bonding of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Water molecule bonding

Water is a cohesive
substance because
hydrogen bonds
form between water
molecules. The negatively
charged
part of one molecule is
linked to the more positively
portion of another molecule
by hydrogen bonds.

HYDROGEN BONDS- is formed when a hydrogen atom,

essentially a single proton, acts as a bridge between two

electrically negative atoms.
covalent bonding- has a slight negative charge in the oxygen
atom
hydrogen atom- acquires a slight positive charge.
A weak hydrogen bond is formed when atom in one water
molecule forms a hydrogen bond with the oxygen atom in another
molecule until many water molecules bond together.
Large molecules held in proper shape by hydrogen bonds:
structural protein
DNA
Enzymes
Hemoglobin molecules

CHEMICAL REACTION- is a process by which the bonds

between atoms are broken or formed resulting in different

combinations of atoms or molecules.
EXERGONIC REACTION- when a chemical reaction gives off
energy.
ENDERGONIC REACTION- when energy is needed for a
chemical reaction.
-energy given off by exergonic reactions is often used to fuel
endergonic reaction

CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE IMPORTANT IN

BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS:
Oxidation-reduction
Hydrolysis
Condensation

IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

COMPOUNDS:
WATER
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Except for water, these compounds make up the organic
substance of living organisms.
Organic compounds always contain carbon.

WATER- is the substance that makes possible life as

we know it in here on earth. It is the biological
medium here on earth and possibly on other planets
as well.
Most cells are surrounded by water, and cells are
about to 70-95% water. Three-quarters on earths
surface is submerged in water. Most of this water is in
liquid in form, but some of water exist as ice and vapor.
Water is the only common substance to exist in the
natural environment in all tree physical states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas.

As a compound, it is made up of two hydrogen atoms

and one oxygen atom covalently bounded.

Oxygen part-slight negative charge

Hydrogen part- slight positive charge
POLAR

MOLECULE- such a molecule can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules or with

molecules of other compounds.

Water

is effective in suspending small molecules such as :

ions
Sugars
Amino

Acids

DEHYDRATION-

an effective method of food preservation.

-removal of water.
Another important property of water is its slowness in changing temperature. More heat is
required to change water from solid, ice to liquid or liquid to gas compared with other known
substances.
The cooling effect can be very important in maintaining homeostasis of of an organism.

Water enters into the many chemical reactions of cell.

The hydrolysis of a protein yields amino acids . Water also provides the
medium for the
Chemical interaction of other biochemical molecules. The importance of
water to living organisms can be better understood if we know that most
living cells consists of 70-95% water.
PH

of Solutions common aquatic plants and animals generally live

in a fairly narrow range of pH . Most of these organisms possess buffers

which allow them to tolerate at least for a short time, water at a pH of
six to nine .
buffer-is a substance that keeps the pH constant when small amounts
of acid or alkali are added.
-they work to maintain a constant pH within an organism.
The internal pH of most living cells is close to seven .Even a slight change
in pH can be harmful, because the chemical processes of the cell are very
sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions .

Buffers in human blood, for example, normally maintain the

blood pH very close to 7.4. A person cannot survive for more
than a few minutes if the blood pH drops to 7 or rises to 7.8
ACIDS AND ALKALIS
-Acids are substances that release free protons in solution
and have the pH of less than seven. Bases are substances that
react with acids to form salts.
Alkalis- bases that dissolve in water.
These molecules are proton acceptors, removing protons from
aqueous(watery) solutions and so increasing the pH.
Alkaline(or basic) solutions therefore have a higher
concentration of ions than pure water and a pH greater than 7.

The pH of some aqueous solutions

ph5- ten times higher than a solution at pH6.

A solution above 7 has a concentration of
hydroxide ions 10x higher.
A solution is pH9, has a concentration of
hydroxide ions 10x higher than a solution at ph8.
The ph scale is from zero(most acidic) to (most
alkaline).

EFFECTS

OF ACIDS ON LIVING ORGANISMS.

The bodies of living organisms can tolerate only a limited pH

range. A slight change in pH can be harmful because
molecules in cells are very sensitive to concentrations of
protons and hydroxide ions.
Acid precipitation has a pH of less than five.
The increased acidity is caused mainly by fumes from burning
fossil fuels reacting with water in the atmosphere to form acids
of sulphur and nitrogen.
Acid precipitation refers to rain, snow, or fog more acidic than
pH 5.6.

o The

effects of acids in lakes and river and the

other sources of water is a serious environmental
problem; considering the dependence of all life
on water.
o The effects of acid precipitation on plants pose
problems to other living organisms.
o Plants are made susceptible to pests and
diseases and can die.

Acidic gas emissions cause acid rain

Carbohydrates play an important role in energy transformation in cells. They are

form by plant cells during photosynthesis. Carbohydrates store energy that can be
released by cellular respiration to fuel cell functions. Starch and cellulose are large,
complex molecules of carbohydrates.
CARBOHYDRATES-composed of simple sugars called MONOSACCHARIDES that are
link together.
GLUCOSE- is a monosaccharide that place a role in energy transformations. Other
monosaccharide are fructose and ribose.
Monosaccharide- composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in which there
are always twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.
CX(H2O)Y-this formula represents a monosaccharide in which the x and y can be any
number.
Monosaccharides are building blocks of more complex sugars.
DISACCHARIDE- When two monosaccharides are chemically united.
A molecule of water is formed whenever two monosaccharide molecules bond
together. This is an example of a condensation reaction.
POLYSACCHARIDES- when carbohydrate molecules are made up of more than two
simple sugars.

 Polysaccharides-formed

by the same process that forms disaccharides

and can be broken down into many simple sugar components by
hydrolysis.
Starch and Glycogen-polysaccharides composed of bands of long
chains.
POLYSACCHARIDE CHAINS(polymers)-contain hundreds or thousands
of simple carbohydrate molecules.
The three very important polysaccharides in living things, namely:
STARCH-the storage form of glucose in plants.
CELLULOSE-the most abundant material in plant cell walls.
GLYCOGEN-the primary form of glucose storage in animals cells.
Starch and Glycogen-used as sources of food by animal cells, but
cellulose is not digestible by most animals.
PROTEIN- are large, complex molecules composed mainly of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

 ENZYMES-

proteins serving as catalysts.

There are about twenty different amino acids that form a great number of
proteins.
In the process, one molecule of water is formed which is the process of
dehydration synthesis.
A peptide bond is a type of covalent bond.
POLYPEPTIDES-short chains of amino acids.
LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE- the specific sequence of amino acids in
a protein constitutes the protein primary structure. The primary structure
determines the fundamental nature of the polypeptide.
When a chain of amino acids twists into a helix, the protein molecule is
shaped like a coiled spring. The coiling is the secondary structure of the protein.
A molecule hemoglobin in human blood is composed of four sub-units and
hence called a super protein.
A hemoglobin cannot work without iron, and iron cannot work without the
protein.

 LIPIDS-lipids

are organic compounds that function as concentrated

food storage materials, as structural components of cells, and as
regulatory chemicals.
Examples of it are:
Lipids are fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids, and cholesterol.

The molecule of a simple fat is composed of four building blocks:

One molecule glycerol bonded to three fatty acid molecules.
The bond s are formed by removing water molecules in dehydration
synthesis.
The digestion of fats by hydrolysis separates the molecules of fatty
acids from the glycerol molecules through the addition of three
molecules of water.
Saturated fats solidify fat room temperature and every carbon atom
in the chain of the fatty acids is bonded to four different atoms.

 OILS-unsaturated

fats, are liquid at room temperature.

CHOLESTEROL- saturated fats are easily converted to the complex
lipid.
The accumulation of cholesterol in the walls of arteries reduces
blood flow and increases blood pressure. This condition is called
Atherosclerosis.
FUNCTIONS OF FATS AND OILS:
HEAT INSULATION-being a poor conductor of heat, mammals
increase their adipose (fat) tissues in winter to reduce heat loss.
SHOCK ABSORPTION- delicate mammalian organs such as kidneys
have relatively thick layers of fat around them.
BUOYANCY-many single-celled aquatic animals produce an oil
droplet for buoyancy in water.

DIETARY FAT- source of fatty acids and of phospholipids.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS-form a major part of the plasma membrane
including the myelin sheath around nerve fibers that allows the
rapid conduction of nerve impulses.
Phospholipids consist of glycerol.
NUCLEIC ACID-are the key to translating genetic information into
cellular function. It is found in living things. They are made of very
large molecules (macromolecules) due to the linking of small units
that are repeated over and over again.
NUCLEOTIDES-the nucleic acids of all living organisms differ in the
sequence of units.
NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE MADE UP OF THREE COMPONENTS:
PHOSPHATE, SUGAR, AND NITROGEN CONTAINING BASES

TWO MAIN KINDS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:

RIBONUCLEIC ACID(RNA)- nucleic acids containing
ribose sugar.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID(DNA)-contains deoxyribose,
a sugar with one less oxygen atom.
DNA-is the genetic material inherited from parents.
-a chemical substance of genes.
GENE-unit of inheritance that programs the amino acid
sequence of a polypeptide that form the protein.
RNA and DNA- play important roles in protein synthesis.

Reported by group
1:
Jiamie Catam-isan
Rose Ann Postrero
Karen Sumalinog
Janice Urot