Vocabulary Instruction

OBJECTIVES
Understand relationship between vocabulary and

comprehension
Understand vocabulary gap
Identify how the Common Core Standards address
vocabulary
Explore strategies and resources for teaching vocabulary
Look at context clue instruction
Selecting vocabulary words to teach
Activities to practice vocabulary words

5 Areas of Reading
Instruction

Phonemic awareness
Alphabetic principle
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension

Vocabulary essential part of reading instruction

in all subjects

Vocabulary & Comprehension

Vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to overall reading

comprehension
If a word is decoded and pronounced but the meaning is not
recognized, comprehension is impaired
If a word is not recognized automatically comprehension may
be affected
Knowledge of words meaning also facilitates accurate word
recognition

Otaiba, S.A., Grek, M.L., Torgesen, J. The Florida Center for Reading Research (2004). Vocabulary
Instruction. Presented at Florida State University, April, 2004.

Obstacles to acquiring
vocabulary
1. The number of words in English is very large.
2. Academic English differs from the kind of English

used at home.
3. Word knowledge involves far more than learning
definitions.
4. Sources of information about words are often hard to
use or unhelpful.
Stahl & Nagy (2006)

Vocabulary Gap
Average child from a welfare family hears

about 3 million words a year vs. 11 million

from a professional family (Hart & Risley,
1995).

By age 4, the gap in words heard grows to 13 vs. 45

million
Children from a professional family spoke more
words than children in a welfare family

Vocabulary Gap

Oral vocabulary at the end of first grade is a

significant predictor of comprehension ten years
later.

Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to
experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.

Word Knowledge
A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge
A vague sense of the meaning
Narrow knowledge with aid of context
Good knowledge but shaky recall
Rich, decontextualized knowledge,
connected to other word meanings

The Vocabulary Catch-22

Children need to learn more words to read well, but they need to read well
to learn more words.

Students who read well read more- improve vocab & reading skills

Students who have trouble reading- read less- miss opportunities to

expand vocab & improve reading skills

McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.

Vocabulary & Mental

Processes
Vocabulary is related to basic mental processes and
& can affect students overall academic
achievement
Childrens ability to name things establishes ability
to form categories (Stahl & Stahl 2012)
Example:
Learns the word shake
Can attach it to other words/concepts : shiver,
vibrate, wiggle, flutter, jitter, etc.

Vocabulary & Mental

Processes
More complex categorization of words, students

are better able to summarize and make inferences

about new information

Knowing more words allows students to think

about more concepts in more ways.

(Kintsch, 1998; Kintsch, & van Diijk, 1978)

(Anderson & Pearson, 1984)

Ways Words are Learned

By reading a lot

Variety & rarity of words in childrens books is greater

than in adult conversation

At the right level of difficulty

Sufficient amounts with motivation to pursue
understanding

Through multiple exposures and multiple

examples in context, spoken and written

Ways Words are Learned

Through explicit instruction

Constructing definitions
Analyzing word structure
Exploring word relationships

Indirect learning
Listening to storybooks/narratives
Characteristics of words (nouns harder than verbs, adv. & adj)
Active participation (Readers theatre, reciprocal teaching)

Closing the Vocabulary Gap

Findings based on National Reading Panel

Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in

comprehension
Should be taught directly
Should also be taught to use context or
incidental learning so students learn how to
learn about figuring out what words mean

More National Reading Panel

Findings in Closing the
Vocabulary Gap

Before reading
Preview or pre-instruction of words

During reading
Incidental learning while reading or listening
Vocabulary builds through reading- more words learned through reading than spoken language
Repeated exposure to words

After reading
Substituting or define using easy words
Build connections

Combined approaches of all

More National Reading Panel

Findings in Closing the
Vocabulary Gap
Choose text keeping the goal of building
vocabulary in mind

Repeated multiple exposures to words enhance gains

and deepen understanding

Interacting with rich text

Information (non-fiction) text
Content area vocabulary

EIGHT RESEARCH-BASED CHARACTERISTICS

OF EFFECTIVE VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION

1.Effective vocabulary instruction does not rely on definitions.

2.Students must represent their knowledge of words in linguistic and nonlinguistic ways.
3.Effective vocabulary instruction involves the gradual shaping of word meanings through
multiple exposures.

4.Teaching word parts enhances students understanding of terms.

5.Different types of words require different types of instruction.
6.Students should discuss the terms they are learning.
7.Students should play with words.
8.Instruction should focus on terms that have a high probability of enhancing academic success.
.

(Adapted from Building Academic Vocabulary by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering, 2005)

Marzanos Six Step Process

http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/media/siteASCD/com
mon/six_step_flash.html

A Six-Step Process for

Teaching New Terms
Step 1: Provide a description, explanation, or
example of the new term.

Before verify what student knows about the

term (Ex: function event, role, relationship,
math)

Definition vs. Description

Dictionary definitions may be ineffective ,
classifies more than explains

Descriptions are more effective than

definitions

(Beck, McKeown, & Kucon 2002)

Descriptions explain and exemplify words

Definition vs. Description

Word

Definition

Description

Dignity

The quality of being

worthy of honor and
respect

If someone behaves
with dignity they
are serious, calm,
and controlled

Overlook

To fail to see

If you overlook a
fact or problem, you
do not notice it

Threat

The act of showing

an intention to do
harm

If you make a
threat against
someone, you say
that something bad
will happen to them
if they do not do

Explaining Features of Words

Part of speech
Who or what the word refers to
Words that refer to people have different key
features than words that refer to events

Features of Different Types of

Words
Types

Questions About Key Features

People

1. What actions does this kind of person perform?

2. What is required to become this kind of person?
3. What physical characteristics or psychological
characteristics does this kind of person have?

Events

1. What people are associated with this event?

2. What process or actions are associated with this
kind of event?
3. What equipment, materials, resources are
associated with the event?
4. What setting is associated with the event?
5. What causes/ consequences are associated with
the event?

Step 2: Ask students to Restate

the Description, Explanation, or
Example in their Own Words
Students shouldnt simply copy teachers but

think how they would describe the word in their

own lives
If student is struggling teacher can give more
descriptions, ask questions that prompt student to
think of examples in their own lives
Students form pairs, small groups, share

Step 3: Ask Students to Construct

a Picture, Symbol, or Graphic
Representing the Term or Phrase

Non-linguistic processing deepens understanding

Visuals helps students make connections

5 Methods of Nonlinguistic
Representation
Sketch the actual object (if concrete and easy
to depict)

Term: Resume

 Sketch a symbol (if abstract)

Term: Inequality

Sketch an example (if abstract)

Term: Primary Source

 Sketch a cartoon with character using term (if

abstract)
Term: explicit

 Sketch a graphic (if abstract)

Term : logical

Students use a Graphic Organizer

to Record The Information

Adapted from Building Academic Vocabulary by

Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering, 2005

Order

Steps 1, 2 and 3 are meant to be done in that

order
Steps 4, 5 and 6 do not necessarily need to be
done in sequential order
All steps should be completed

Step 4: Engage Students Periodically

in Activities that Help them Add to
Their Knowledge of the Terms in Their
Vocabulary Notebooks

Identifying Similarities and Differences

1. Comparing & contrasting
2. Classifying
3. Creating metaphors
4. Creating Analogies

Comparing & Contrasting

__________ & _________ are similar because they

both : __________, ________.

__________ & __________ are different because

___________ is _________ while __________ is
____________.

 Circles and spheres are similar because they

both have circumferences, diameters, and
surface areas.

Circles and spheres are different because a

circle is 2D while a sphere is 3D.

 Venn Diagrams to Compare and Contrast

Double Bubble Diagram

Comparison Matrix

Classifying

Structured to open ended

Structured teacher provided words and

categories
Open ended students provide both the words
to sort and categories

List Group Label

List
Students brainstorm all the words they can recall at
the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each group they form.

no legs garter
boa
venom
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground

no legs garter
boa
venom
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground

garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral

Things Snakes Might Have

rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground

no legs garter
boa
venom
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground

Kinds of Snakes
garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral
Things Snakes Might Have
rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground

Creating Metaphors

Creating Analogies

Affixes and Root Words

Prefix

% of all
Words

Suffix

% of all
Words

Un

26

s, es

31

Re

14

ed

20

In, im, ir, il

(not)

11

ing

14

Dis

ly

Greek and Latin Roots

Root

Meaning

Origin

Example

Act

Do

Latin

React, transact

Ang

Bend

Latin

Angle, angular

Aud

Hear

Latin

Audible,
audience,

Bio

Life

Greek

Biology,
biography

Chron

Time

Greek

Chronological,
synchronize,
chronicle

Miss, Mit

Send

Latin

Dismiss,
missile,
mission,

Step 5: Periodically Ask

Students to Discuss the
Terms with One Another
Construct word meanings
Surface/ correct misconceptions
Possible Activities
- Appointment Times
- Think Pair Share
- TPT Activities

Step 6: Involve Students

Periodically in Games that
Allow Them to Play With Terms

Vocabulary Charades
Focus: Connect movement to vocabulary
Object: Act out non-linguistic representation of vocabulary,
generally for elementary.
Preparation: None!
Play: 1: Students stand next to their desks and use their
bodies to show meaning of terms;
2: Form teams and designate team member to act out word
while others guess
3: A team works together to act out a word, the class guesses

Game Shows

Modeled after Family Feud or Jeopardy Students work in teams to answer questions
about vocabulary terms

Who Am I?
Similar to Heads Up
Students put on a hat
A name of a famous person is then attached to

the hat so he/she does not see the name

Teammates/class describe the person for the
hat wearer to guess

Name that Category

Focus: categorization
Modeled after "$100,000 Pyramid" TV show
Helps students focus on attributes of concepts by looking for
commonalities.
Preparation: Game board with identified categories of increasing
difficulty in each cell. Hide the category names.
Play: Students work in pairs or small groups. Only one "clue giver" from
each team can see the game board. Uncover the first cell and clue
giver lists words that fit that category. When the teams correctly
identify the category name, move on to the next category until one
team guesses all of them. The first team done is the winner.Teams
receive the points they earned up to that time.

Magic Letter Magic Word

Write a magic letter on the board

Give a clue for a vocab word that starts with the magic letter
Team guesses word

Elementary Example:
Magic Letter: A
Clue: A list of all of the letters is called an _____________.
Answer: alphabet
Secondary Example:
Magic Letter: S
Clue: A genre that intends to make political statements by
_____________.
Answer: satire

using parody is called a

Name It!
Focus: Vocabulary & Content Terms
Object: Write the word that corresponds with a photo or
illustration. For lower elementary
Preparation: Gather images that represent terms & 2 whiteboards
Play: Place the images, face down in a container. Divide class into
2 teams. One person from each team comes up, takes a picture,
looks at it, and hands it to the teacher. He then writes the word
or phrase on the board. If it's correct, the teacher gives the OK
sign and gives the team a point. Player 1 rushes back to tag the
next teammate, etc. Team with most points wins.

Two of a Kind
Focus: Homonyms
Object: Lower & upper elementary, general vocabulary
Preparation: Note cards with homonyms printed on them.
One side only.
Play: Like Memory game, teams or pairs lay the cards out
face down. Flip over 2 cards. If they are homonyms, keep
the pair and continue. If not, partner has a turn. Kids can
explain meaning before they take the cards, especially if
they are homonyms that are spelled the same

Root Relay
Focus: Affixes & Root words
Object: upper elementary, middle school
Preparation: Note cards with prefixes, suffixes
and root words
Play: One student from each team runs up and
selects from the affixes. The next team member
does the same. First team to make a complete
word and describe its meaning gets a point.

Which One Doesnt Belong?

Focus: Classifying
Object: All grades
Preparation: groups of words
Play: Students try to identify the vocabulary
term that doesnt belong with the other three
words in a group of four.

Talk a Mile a Minute

Shapes
Square
Circle
Rectangle
Triangle
Right Triangle
Oval
Diamond

Focus: Description , explanation

Object: upper elementary to high school
Preparation: Cards with list of terms from
different categories
Play: Teacher passes card out to one member
designated as the talker. Teacher starts timer
and talker tries to get teammate to say each
word in the list without saying any other words
on the card or the heading.

Teaching Students to Use

Context

Stahl (1999) suggests that most words are learned

from context so show students how to find the
definition of a word within a passage

Model or think aloud to students how to do so

Target words are carefully chosen to ensure there are enough
clues for students to determine the meaning of the word
within a passage
Often done by using a synonym or antonym
Harder if negative
Harder when implied or described rather than stated
explicitly.

Context Clues Steps

For Students
1.
2.
3.

4.

For Teachers

Identify the unknown word.

Look for the words that give
hints about its meaning in
the sentence.
If you need more cues, read
the sentences before and
after the one with the word
in it.
Infer the words meaning
based on what you found.

Then model it
As Tom stepped out of the
tent, the moist grass soaked his
shoes and he wondered if it
had rained.

Say aloud
The grass is moist. It soaks
Toms shoes. Tom thinks it
rained. Rain makes things wet.
Moist must mean.. Now
try wet in place of moist to
see if it makes sense.
Adapted from Vocabulary Instruction Module
developed for Reading Excellence Act. Graves (2002)

Semantic Clues

General The room was disheveled. Clothes and

dirty
dishes were everywhere. Chairs were
overturned, and trash littered the floor.

Series

MoodThe day was dull and dark. Clouds hung low

and a feeling of melancholy was everywhere.

Expression

Would you like cake, peach pie, or a flan?

He was as famished as a bear.

Edwards, E.C., Font, G., Baumann, J.F., & Boland, E. (2004). Unlocking word meanings: Strategies and
guidelines for teaching morphemic and contextual analysis. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kameenui (Eds.),
Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 159-176). New York: Guilford.

Semantic Clues
Definition

The vole, a small rodent, has a

short tail.
Antonym Sue was adroit but Bill was clumsy.
Synonym The soup was hot scalding, in
fact.
Example Periwinkle was her favorite color.

SLAP Method

Say the word.

Look for clues.
Ask yourself what the word might mean; think
of a word that expresses that meaning.
Put the word in the passage in place of the
unfamiliar word. Does it make sense?

Read Alouds

Reading aloud and facilitating text-based

discussions about words provide contexts and

opportunities for children to learn new words
before they have the reading skills necessary
to acquire vocabulary independently
(Biemiller, 2001).

 The title of this book is The Grouchy Ladybug. Grouchy means

grumpy or angry. Someone who is grouchy is not happy. What
does grouchy mean? Show me, with your face, what grouchy
looks like. Look at the book cover again. How would you
describe the ladybug on the cover?

Choosing Words for Vocabulary

Instruction
Tier 1 Basic, concrete, encountered in conversation/ oral

vocabulary; words most student will know at a particular grade

level

E.g., clock, baby,

Tier 2 Abstract, general academic (across content areas);

encountered in written language; high utility across instructional

areas

E.g., vary, relative, innovation, accumulate, surface, layer

Tier 3 Highly specialized, subject-specific; low occurrences in

texts; lacking generalization

E.g., lava, aorta, legislature, circumference

Common Core State Standards, Appendix A, page 33

Common Core Standards

Includes both Tier 2 and Tier 3 Words

Academic Words- Tier 2

They are critical to understanding academic texts.
They appear in all sorts of texts.
They require deliberate effort to learn, unlike Tier 1 words.
They are far more likely to appear in written texts than in

speech.
They often represent subtle or precise ways to say
otherwise relatively simple things.
They are seldom heavily scaffolded by authors or teachers,
unlike Tier 3 words.
Common Core State Standards, Appendix A, page 33

Choosing Words

Jose avoided playing the ukulele.

Which word would you choose to pre-teach?

Avoided
Why?
Verbs are where the action is
Teach avoid, avoided, avoids
Likely to see it again in grade-level text
Likely to see it on assessments
We are going to start calling these useful words Tier 2
words
Why not ukulele?
Rarely seen in print
Rarely used in stories or conversation or content-area
information

You cant pre-teach every

word
Choose words carefully

Critical to the meaning of the story

Not defined in context of story (so hard for kids to
pick up on own indirectly)
Likely to be seen again
Usefulness
Figurative speech or idiomatic expressions

Determining Tier 2 Words

Is this a generally useful word?

Does the word relate to other words and ideas
that students know or have been learning?
Is the word useful in helping students
understand text?
If you answer yes to all three questions, it is
a Tier 2 word. If not, it is probably a Tier 3
word.

Tier 2 Common Core

Cognitive Vocabulary
Categories

1. Add to 13. Infer

2. Arrange 14. Measure
3. Collaborate 15. Problem Solve
4. Compare/Contrast 16. Prove/Argue
5. Create 17. Pull Apart
6. Decide 18. Redo
7. Define 19. Reference
8. Elaborate 20. Seek Information
9. Evaluate 21. See the Big Picture
10.Execute 22. Symbolize
11.Explain 23. Think Metacognitively
12.Hypothesize 24. Transform

Category Add to
Combine, deepen, improve, incorporate,
integrate, introduce

Each word may mean something different they

all describe actions related to the category
Add To.

How Many Words??

In school settings, students can be explicitly taught

a deep understanding of about 300 words each
year.
Divided by the range of content students need to
know (e.g., math, science, history, literature), of
these 300350 words, roughly 60 words can be
taught within one subject area each year.
It is reasonable to teach thoroughly about eight to
ten words per week. (Chall, 1996)

Assessing Students
Multiple choice may not be the best

assessment, particularly if words in the test

the students are unfamiliar to students
Make assessments with open-ended questions
Explain in own words, draw a picture/ graphic,
short dialogue between two characters that
uses the term and makes its meaning clear.

 If Multiple Choice is to be used, create

questions that has them apply knowledge .

Weak

Strong

Diligent means:
a. Fast
b. Hardworking
c. Lost
d. Punished

a.
b.
c.
d.

Synonym
someone

Making a lot of money

Working an interesting job
Always trying ones best
Remembering everything
Characteristics/ features of
diligent

Self- Assessment
In vocabulary notebook/ boxes
Ratings

1- dont understand what it means

Rating may change throughout the 6 steps, encourage

students to self monitor

2- a little uncertain , general idea

3- understand the term, not confused about any part
4- understand even more about the term than I was taught

Online Resources for Games

http://www.vocabulary.co.il/
http://www.freereading.net/index.php?title=Vocabu
lary_Reintroduce_and_Build_Mastery_Activities
http://www.visuwords.com/
http://www.pppst.com/templates.html
http://jc-schools.net/tutorials/gameboard.htm
http://its.leesummit.k12.mo.us/gameresources.htm
http://people.uncw.edu/ertzbergerj/ppt_games.html
http://reading.pppst.com/vocabulary.html

Vocabulary Websites
http://www.wordsift.com/ Word maps, word clouds
http://quizlet.com/ Make flash cards & games
http://jc-schools.net/tutorials/vocab/ Academic vocabulary games
http://www.vocabulary.com/ More games, including games using
Latin & Greek roots
www.worldwidewords.com
Definitions, history and short essays on words
http://www.visualthesaurus.com/ Visual thesaurus
www.vocabgrabber.com
www.wordle.com
www.etymonline.com (Affix, word origins)

Tier 2 and Tier 3 Words

https://soltreemrls3.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws

.com/marzanoresearch.com/media/documents/re
producibles/vocab-common-core/sourcelistfor
terms-MR.pdf

References

Anderson, R.C. & Pearson, P.D. (1984). A scheme-theoretic view of basic processing in reading. In P.D.
Pearson (Ed.). Handbook of reading research (pp.255-292). New York: Longman.

Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to experience
and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.

Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995).Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American
children. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brooks.

Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. New York : Cambridge University Press.

McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.

Otaiba, S.A., Grek, M.L., Torgesen, J. The Florida Center for Reading Research (2004). Vocabulary Instruction.
Presented at Florida State University, April, 2004.

Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006).Teaching word meanings. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kintsch, W., & van Diijk, T.A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production.
Psychological Review, 85 (5), 363-394.
Marzano, R.J., & Pickering, D.L. (2005) Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher's Manual. Alexandria,
VA: ASCD.

Marzano, R.J., & Pickering, D.L. (2005) Building Academic Vocabulary:

Teacher's Manual. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Marzano, R. J., & Simms, J. A. (2013b). Vocabulary for the Common Core.
Bloomington, IN: Marzano Research Laboratory

Otaiba, S.A., Grek, M.L., Torgesen, J. The Florida Center for Reading Research
(2004). Vocabulary Instruction. Presented at Florida State University, April, 2004.

Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006).Teaching word meanings. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.

Stahl, K.A.D., & Stahl. S.A. (2012). Young word wizards! Fostering vocabulary
development in preschool and primary education. In E.J.Kameenui & J.F. Baumann
(Eds.), Vocabulary Instruction: Research to practice (2 nd ed., pp72-92). New York:
Guilford Press.