Ancient Roots of Taoism

Jeff Richey, Ph.D.

REL 213
Taoism and the Arts of China
Berea College
Short Term 2004

ECOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN

EARLY CHINA
1.
2.
3.

4.

Large population
Agricultural society
Climactic extremes
(hot summers,
freezing winters,
regular floods)
Relative isolation
(bounded by Pacific,
Himalayas, deserts)
2

CULTURAL ORIENTATIONS
1.

2.

3.

4.

Intense pressure for

social harmony
Ideal unity of natural and
social orders
Confidence in human
ability to discern and
manipulate environment
Ethnocentrism and bouts
of xenophobia
3

EARLY CHINESE RELIGION

1.

2.

Oracle bones used in

divination rituals to
communicate with
ancestral spirits
Shang-di (The
Lord on High) =
divine ancestor of Shang
rulers (c. 1500-1050 BCE)
later identified with Tian
(Heaven), deity of Zhou
rulers (c. 1050-256 BCE)

Dao (Way) =
normative cosmic pattern

EARLY CHINESE COSMOLOGY

1.

2.

Two hypotheses:
Agonistic relationship:
humans versus earth, Tian,
other extrahuman forces
[Puett]
Triangular relationship:
humans, earth, Tian share
harmonious, correlative
cosmos [Chang, Mote]
In both, great emphasis on
human agency in
sustaining cosmic order

THE CRISIS IN THE ZHOU

ORDER (c. 771-221 BCE)

After 770 BCE, Zhou rule was weakened by foreign

invasions and internal divisions
771-481 BCE: Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn)
period of unstable feudal coalition
403-221 BCE: Zhanguo (Warring States) period
of constant civil war among feudal lords competing to
impose rule and restore unity of Zhou territory
The Baijia (Hundred Teachings) arise in
response to cultural crisis and free market for political,
philosophical, and ritual expertise
6

THE SCHOOL OF ZHUANGZI,

c. 300s-100s BCE
1.

2.

3.

Zhuangzi = obscure
thinker from south China
responsible for some, but
not all, of text that bears
his name
Zhuangzi = most original
and complex early
Chinese text
After 221 BCE, little
interest in Zhuangzi until
arrival of Buddhism in
China

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF
ZHUANGZI

Zhuangism (1-7, 16-27): associated with Zhuangzi

himself, interested in critique of rationalism,
spontaneity, ineffable Dao
Primitivism (8-10, 11): rejection of society,
embrace of natural values
Syncretists (12-15, 33): combine cosmological
concerns with self-cultivation themes
Yangism (28-29, 31): associated with
individualist/hedonist Yang Zhu (c. 300s BCE)
-- cf. A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao (1989)

ZHUANGIST THEMES

Conscious knowledge =
product of dualism
(separation of subject &
object)
Dao = mysterious, amoral,
beyond conventional wisdom
Unity with Dao = naturalness
(ziran ), freedom,
insight
Spiritual models =
craftspersons, enduring
natural objects

THE SCHOOL OF LAOZI,

c. 300s-100s BCE
1.

2.

3.

Laozi = legendary,
probably non-historical
figure credited with text;
deified by 100s CE
Text (c. 250 BCE) also
known as Daodejing
(Classic of Way
and Power)
In contrast to Zhuangzi,
Laozi remains important
to Daoists beyond
Warring States era

10

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF
LAOZI

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Diverse concerns suggest multiple layers

of authorship:
Meditation techniques
Military strategy
Politics and rulership
Social revolution
Utopian escapism
11

LAOIST THEMES

Conscious knowledge =
product of decline from era of
sage-king rule
Dao = mysterious, amoral,
beyond conventional wisdom
Unity with Dao = anonymity,
freedom, natural social order
Spiritual model =
characteristic wuwei
(actionless action) of
natural world

12

THE HUANG-LAO SCHOOL,

c. 100s BCE

1.

2.

1.
2.
3.

Huang-Lao =
Huangdi (Yellow
Emperor mythical sage-king
of primeval times, associated
with healing arts and rulership
Laozi

Popular at early Han

court, c. 206-136 BCE
Syncretism of earlier
concepts and concerns:
Dao-based cosmology
Techniques of rulership
Interest in law (fa )

13

WHAT IS DAOJIA (TAOISM)?

1.

2.

3.

4.

The term Daojia (School of

Dao) does not appear in
Chinese texts until Han
dynasty, c.100s BCE
Han librarians use Daojia to
unite four traditions:
Huang-di (Yellow
Emperor) medicine
Daoshu (Dao-method)
shamanism
Zhuangzi (Master
Zhuang) skepticism
Laozi (Old Master)
mysticism/politics

14

MODERN SOLUTIONS
1.

2.

3.
4.

Philosophical (pre-221 BCE) vs. religious

(post-221 BCE) Taoisms [common division]
Contemplative (mystical), purposive
(political), and xian (immortality-seeking)
Taoisms [Creel]
Taoism = only post-221 BCE [Kleeman]
Laoist (school of Laozi) vs. Zhuangist
(school of Zhuangzi) [Graham/LaFargue]
15

DEFINING TAOISM

1.

2.

Any definition of
Taoism must
account for:
Incredible diversity
of items associated
with term
Whether/why such
items ought to be
unified under term
16