INDIVIDUAL

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
DIFFERENCES

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

21

OBJECTIVES
LEARNING

After studying this chapter,

you should be able to:
1. Define the key biographical characteristics.
2. Identify two types of ability.
3. Shape the behavior of others.
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
6. Practice self-management

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22

Biographical
Biographical Characteristics
Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristicssuch as age,
gender, and marital statusthat are
objective and easily obtained from
personnel records.

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23

Ability,
Ability,Intellect,
Intellect, and
and Intelligence
Intelligence
Ability
An individuals capacity to
perform the various tasks in a
job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental
activities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and
cultural.
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24

Physical
Physical Abilities
Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina,
dexterity, strength, and
similar characteristics.

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25

The
The Ability-Job
Ability-Job Fit
Fit

Employees
Abilities

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Ability-Job
Fit

Jobs Ability
Requirements

26

Individual
Individual Differences
Differences in
in the
the Workplace
Workplace
Individual Differences

Personality
Personality

Perception
Perception

Ability and Skills

Ability and Skills

Work Behavior

Productivity
Creativity
Performance

Attitudes
Attitudes

Abilities
Abilities and
and Skills
Skills

Ability a persons
talent to perform a
mental or physical
task
Skill a learned talent
that a person has
acquired to perform a
task

Key Abilities
Mental Ability
Emotional
Intelligence
Tacit Knowledge

Attitudes
Attitudes
Are determinates of behavior because they are
linked with perception, personality, feelings, and
motivation
Attitude a mental state of readiness
learned and organized through experience
exerting a specific response to people, objects,
and situations with which it is related

Attitudes:
Attitudes: Implications
Implications for
for the
the Manager
Manager
1.
2.
3.

4.

Attitudes are learned

Attitudes define ones predispositions toward
given aspects of the world
Attitudes provide the emotional basis of ones
interpersonal relations and identification with
others
Attitudes are organized and are close to the
core of personality

Diversity
Diversity Factors
Factors
Primary Dimensions (stable)
Age
Ethnicity
Gender
Physical attributes
Race
Sexual / affectional
orientation

Secondary Dimensions
(changeable)
Educational background
Marital status
Religious beliefs
Health
Work experience

Why
WhyIndividual
IndividualDifferences
DifferencesAre
AreImportant:
Important:(1
(1of
of 2)
2)
Individual differences have a direct effect on
behavior
People who perceive things differently behave
differently
People with different attitudes respond
differently to directives
People with different personalities interact
differently with bosses, coworkers, subordinates,
and customers

Why
Why Individual
Individual Differences
Differences Are
Are
Important:
Important: (2(2ofof2)2)
Individual differences help explain:
Why some people embrace change and others
are fearful of it
Why some employees will be productive only if
they are closely supervised, while others will be
productive if they are not
Why some workers learn new tasks more
effectively than others

Attraction-Selection-Attrition
Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA)
(ASA) Cycle
Cycle
(1
(1 of
of 3)
3)
Different people are attracted to different careers
and organizations as a function of their own:
abilities
interests
personalities

Attraction-Selection-Attrition
Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA)
(ASA)
Cycle
Cycle
Organizations select employees on the basis of
(2
of
(2the
of3)
3)
needs the organization has
skills and abilities
individual attributes such as values and
personality

Attraction-Selection-Attrition
Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA)
(ASA)
Cycle
Cycle

(3
Attrition
(3of
of3)
3) occurs when:

individuals discover they do not like being part

of the organization and elect to resign, or
the organization determines an individual is not
succeeding and elects to terminate

Each phase of ASA cycle is significantly

influenced by the individual differences of
each person.
Effective managerial practice requires that
individual behavior differences be recognized,
and when feasible, taken into consideration
while carrying out the job of managing
organizational behavior.

Personality
Personality

A relatively stable set of feelings

and behaviors that have been
significantly formed by genetic and
environmental factors
The relationship between behavior
and personality is one of the most
complex matters that managers
have to understand

Some
Some Major
Major Forces
Forces Influencing
Influencing
Personality
Personality
Cultural forces

Hereditary forces

Individua
l
Personali
ty
Family relationship forces

Social class / group membership

forces

Theories
Theories of
of Personality
Personality

Types
Types of
of Personality
Personality Theories
Theories

Trait Theories: Attempt to learn what traits make up

personality and how they relate to actual behavior
Psychodynamic Theories: Focus on the inner workings of
personality, especially internal conflicts and struggles
Humanistic Theories: Focus on
experience and personal growth

private,

subjective

Social-Cognitive Theories: Attribute difference in

personality to socialization, expectations, and mental
processes

Trait
Trait Theories
Theories of
of Personality
Personality

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Trait theories - theories that endeavor to

describe the characteristics that make up
human personality in an effort to predict
future behavior.
Trait - a consistent, enduring way of
thinking, feeling, or behaving.

Allport first developed a list of about 200

traits and believed that these traits were
part of the nervous system.
Cattell reduced the number of traits to
between 16 and 23 with a computer
method called factor analysis.
Menu

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Menu

Trait
Trait Theories
Theories of
of Personality
Personality

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Surface traits - aspects of personality that can

easily be seen by other people in the outward
actions of a person.
Source traits - the more basic traits that underlie
the surface traits, forming the core of personality.
Example: Introversion - dimension of personality
in which people tend to withdraw from excessive
stimulation.

Menu

The
The Big
Big Five
Five Theory
Theory

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Five-factor model (Big Five) - model of

personality traits that describes five basic trait
dimensions.
Openness - one of the five factors; willingness to
try new things and be open to new experiences.
Conscientiousness - the care a person gives to
organization and thoughtfulness of others;
dependability.

Menu

The
The Big
Big Five
Five Theory
Theory

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Extraversion - dimension of personality

referring to ones need to be with other
people.
Extraverts - people who are outgoing and sociable.
Introverts - people who prefer solitude and dislike being the
center of attention.

Agreeableness - the emotional style of a

person that may range from easygoing,
friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and
unpleasant.
Neuroticism - degree of emotional instability
or stability.

Menu

LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Menu

How
How Do
Do the
the Big
Big Five
Five Traits
Traits Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Research has shown this to be a better framework.
Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to
higher job performance:
Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge,
exert greater effort, and have better performance.
Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.
Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good
social skills.
Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
Agreeable people are good in social settings.
See E X H I B I T 51
See E X H I B I T 51
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publishing as Prentice Hall

5-28

Personality
Personality and
and Behavior
Behavior in
in Organizations
Organizations

The Big Five

Personality
Dimensions

Locus of Control

Self-efficacy

Creativity

The
The Big
Big Five
Five Personality
Personality Dimensions
Dimensions

Extroversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousn
ess
Emotional
Stability

Openness to
Experience

Locus
Locus of
of Control
Control
Locus of control of individuals
Determines the degree to which they believe
their behaviors influence what happens to them
Internals believe they are masters of their own
fate
Externals believe they are helpless pawns of
fate, success is due to luck or ease of task

Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
Feelings of self-efficacy have managerial and
organizational implications:
Selection decisions
Training programs
Goal setting and performance

Other
Other Personality
Personality Traits(
Traits( Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem and
and SelfSelfMonitoring)
Monitoring)
Self-Esteem (SE)
Individuals degree of liking or disliking
themselves.
Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that measures an
individuals ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external, situational factors.

2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

433

Risk-Taking
Risk-Taking
High Risk-taking Managers
Make quicker decisions
Use less information to make decisions
Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations

Low Risk-taking Managers

Are slower to make decisions
Require more information before making decisions
Exist in larger organizations with stable
environments

Risk Propensity
Aligning managers risk-taking propensity to job
requirements should be beneficial to organizations.
2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

434

Even
Even More
More Relevant
Relevant Personality
Personality Traits
Traits
Type A Personality
Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to
achieve more in less time

Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly

Strive to think or do two or more things at once
Cannot cope with leisure time
Obsessed with achievement numbers

Type B people are the complete opposite

They never suffer from a sense of time urgency, can relax
without guilt and so on.

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publishing as Prentice Hall

5-35

Personality
Personality Types
Types
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative,
takes action, and perseveres until meaningful
change occurs.
Creates positive change in the environment,
regardless or even in spite of constraints or
obstacles.

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436