Linear Measurements

Linear Measurements
The determination of the distance
between two points on the surface of
the earth is one of the basic
operation of surveying. Measurement
of horizontal distances or measuring
linear measurement is required in
chain surveying, traverse surveying
and other types of surveying.

Linear Measurements
Methods of making linear
measurements
Direct methods
Optical methods
E.D.M methods

Linear Measurements
In the direct method, the distance is
actually measured during field work using a
chain or a tape. This is the most commonly
used method for linear measurements.
In the optical methods, principles of optics
are used. The distance is not actually
measured in field but it is computed
indirectly. The instrument used for making
observations is called tacheometer.

Optical Methods

Linear Measurements
Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M)
instruments
have been developed
quite recently.
These are practically replacing the
measurement of distances using
chains or tapes. There is a large
variety of such instruments and
depending upon the precision required
the instruments should be used.

Electronic Distance Measuring

(E.D.M)

ED
M
P

Linear Measurements
Approximate methods
The methods given below may be used in
reconnaissance or for detecting major
mistakes in linear measurements obtained
with a chain or a tape.
Pacing
A distance between two points can be
approximately be determined by counting
the number of paces and multiplying it with
average length of the pace.

Pacing

Pacing

Linear Measurements
Passometer:
It is a small instrument which counts
the number of paces.
Pedometer:
This instrument directly gives the
distance by multiplying the number
of paces with the average pace
length of the person carrying the
instrument.

Passometer

Pedometer

Pedometer

Linear Measurements
Odometer
An odometer is a simple device
which can be attached to the wheel
of a bicycle or any such vehicle. The
odometer registers the number of
revolution made by the wheel. The
distance covered is equal to the
product of the number of revolutions
and the perimeter of the wheel.

Odometer

Linear Measurements
Speedometer
This is used in automobiles for measuring
distances.
Measuring Wheel
It is a wheel fitted with a fork and handle.
The wheel is graduated and shows a
distance per revolution. There is a dial which
records the number of revolution. Thus the
distance can be computed.

Speedometer

Measuring Wheel

Measuring Wheel

Instruments Used in
Chaining
The following instruments are used while
chaining.
Chains
Tapes
Arrows
Ranging rods and offset rods
Laths & Whites
Pegs
Plumb bob
Line Ranger

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Chains
Various types of chains used in
surveying are
Metric Chain
Gunters Chain or Surveyors Chain
Engineers Chain
Revenue Chain
Steel Band or band chain

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Metric Chain
Normally this chain consists of galvanized
mild steel wire of 4 mm diameter known
as link. The ends of the links are bent into
loop and connected together by means of
three oval rings which provide the
flexibility to the chain and make it less
liable to kinking. Both ends of the chain
have brass handle with swivel joint so that
the chain can be turned round without
twisting

Metric Chain
In a metric chain at every one meter interval
of chain, a small brass ring is provided. Brass
tallies are also provided at every 5.0 m length
of chain. Each tally has different shape which
indicates 5 , 10, 15m from any one side of the
chain, metric chains are available in 20 m
and 30 m length.
A 20 m chain has 100 links each of 20 cm and
30 m chain has 150 links. Length of chain is
embossed on the brass handles of the chain.

Metric Chain

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Gnter's chain
A 66 feet long chain consists of 100
links each of 0.66 ft it is known as
Gunters Chain
Here, 10 sq chain are equal to 1 acre,
10 chains= 1 furlong and 8 furlongs
= 1 mile
This chain is suitable for taking
length in miles and areas in acres.

Gnter's Chain

Gnter's Chain

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Engineers Chain
A 100 ft chain of 100 links each of 1
foot is known as Engineers chain.
Brass tags are fastened at every 10
links. This chain is used to measure
length in feet and area in square
yards.

Engineers Chain

Engineers Chain

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Revenue Chain
Revenue chain is 33 ft long chain
consisting of 16 links. This chain is
used for distance measurements in
feet & inches for small areas.

Revenue Chain

Instruments Used in
Chaining
Steel Band or Band Chain
Steel bands are preferred than chains
because they are more accurate, but
the disadvantages is that they get
broken easily and are difficult to
repair in the field. They are 20 and
30 m long, 12 to 16 mm wide and 0.3
to 0.6 mm thick. They are numbered
at every metre and divided by brass
studs at every 20 cm

Steel Band or Band Chain

Steel Band or Band Chain

Testing and Adjustment

of Chain
During continuous use, the length of a chain
gets altered. Its length is shortened chiefly
due to the bending of links. Its length is
elongated either due to stretching of the links
and joints and opening out of the small rings.
For accurate work it is necessary to test the
chain time to time. The chain can be thus
tested by a steel tape or by a standard chain.
Sometimes, it is convenient to have a
permanent test gauge established where the
chain is tested.

Testing and Adjustment

of Chain
When the length of a chain is
measured at a pull of 8 kg at 20 00C
the length of the chain should
measure 20 m 5 mm and 30 m 8
mm for 20 m and 30 m long chain
shall be accurate to within 2 mm.
Following measures are taken to
adjust the length of a chain.

Testing and Adjustment

of Chain

Testing and Adjustment

of Chain
If chain is found to be too long
It can be adjusted by;
Closing up the joints of the rings if
found to be opened out
Reshaping damaged rings
Removing one or more small rings
Adjusting the links at the end.

Testing and Adjustment

of Chain

If the chain is found to be too short

Straightening the bent links
Opening the joints of the rings
Replacing one or more small circular
rings by bigger ones.
Inserting new rings where necessary.
Adjusting the links at the end.

Measuring Tapes
Tapes are used for more accurate
measurement.
The
tapes
are
classified based on the materials of
which they are made of such as:
Cloth or linen tape
Fibre Tape
Metallic Tape
Steel tape
Invar Tape

Measuring Tapes

Measuring Tapes
Cloth or linen Tape
Linen tapes are closely woven linen
and varnished to resist moisture.
They are generally 10 m, 20 m, 25 m
and 30 m long in length and 12 to 15
mm wide. They are generally used
for offset measurements. These
tapes are light and flexible.

Cloth or linen Tape

Measuring Tapes
Fibre Glass Tape
These tapes are similar to linen and
plastic coated tapes but these are made
of glass fibre. The tapes are quite flexible,
strong and non-conductive. These can be
used in the vicinity of electrical
equipment. These tapes do not stretch or
shrink due to changes in temperature or
moisture. These tapes are available in
length of 20 m, 30 m and 50 m length.

Fibre Glass Tape

Measuring Tapes
Metallic Tape
A linen tape reinforced with brass or copper
wires to prevent stretching or twisting of fibres
is called a metallic tape. As the wires are
interwoven and tape is varnished these wires
are visible to naked eyes. This is supplied in a
lather case with a winding device. Each metre
length is divided into ten parts (decimetres)
and each part is further sub-divided into ten
parts. It is commonly used for taking offset in
chain surveying.

Metallic Tape

Measuring Tapes
Steel Tape
The steel tape is made of steel
ribbon of width varying from 6 to 16
mm. The commonly available length
are 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 30 m and 50
m. It is graduated in metres,
decimetres, and centimetres. Steel
tapes
are
used
for
accurate
measurement of distances.

Steel Tape

Measuring Tapes
Invar Tape
Invar tape are made of alloy of nickel
36 % and steel 64 % having very low
co-efficient of thermal expansion.
These are 6 mm wide and generally
available in length of 30 m, 50m,
100m. It is not affected by change of
temperature therefore, it is used
when high degree of precesion is
required.

Invar Tape

Arrows
Arrows are made of tempered steel
wire of diameter 4 mm. one end of
the arrow is bent into ring of
diameter 50 mm and the other end is
pointed. Its overall length is 400 mm.
Arrows are used for counting the
number of chains while measuring a
chain line. An arrow is inserted into
the ground after every chain length
measured on the ground.

Arrows

Arrows

Ranging Rods and Offset

Rods
Ranging rods are used for ranging some intermediate
points on the survey line. Ranging rods are generally 2
to 3 m in length and are painted with alternate bands
of black or white or red and white colour with length of
each equalizing 20 cm. The location of any survey
station can be known from long distances only by
means of ranging rods. If the distance is too long, a rod
of length 4.0 to 6.0 m is used and is called ranging
pole.
The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the
exception that instead of the flag, a hook is provided at
the top for pushing and pulling the chain or the tape.
It is also used for measuring small offsets

Ranging Rods

Ranging Rods

Offset Rods

Ranging Rods and Offset

Rods

Laths & Whites

Laths
Laths are 0.5 to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood. They
are sharpened at one end and are painted with white
or light colours. They are used as intermediate points
while ranging or while crossing depressions.
Whites
Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut
from the nearest place in the field. One end of the
stick is sharpened and the other end is split. White
papers are inserted in the split to improve the
visibility. Whites are also used for the same purpose
as laths

Laths & Whites

Pegs
Pegs are made of timber or steel and
they are used to mark the position of
the station or terminal points of a
survey line. Wooden pegs are 15 cm
long and are driven into the ground
with the help of a hammer.

Wooden Pegs

Pegs

Plumb Bob
Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on the
ground. It is also used for fixing the
instruments exactly over the station point
marked on the ground by checking the
centre of the instrument whether coincides
with the centre of the peg or station not,
by suspending the plumb-bob exactly at
the centre of the instrument under it.
Plumb bob is thus used as centring aid in
theodolites and plane table.

Plumb Bob

Plumb Bob

Cross Staff
The instrument used for setting right
angle to a chain line is called cross staff.
The main parts of cross staff are a frame
or box with two pair of vertical slits and
a pole to mount it.
The different types of cross staffs include
Open type cross staff
French cross staff
Adjustable cross staff

Open Cross Staff

Ranging
When a survey line is longer than a
chain length, it is necessary to align
intermediate points on chain line so
that the measurements are along the
line.
The
process
of
locating
intermediate points on survey line is
known as ranging. There are two
methods of ranging viz., direct
ranging and reciprocal ranging.

Ranging

Direct Ranging

If the first and last points are intervisible this

method is possible.
Stations A and B in which an intermediate point C
is to be located. Point C is selected at a distance
slightly less than a chain length. At points A and B
ranging rods are fixed. The assistant holds another
ranging rod near C. Surveyor positions himself
approximately 2 m behind station A and looking
along line AB directs the assistant to move at right
angles to the line AB till he aligns the ranging rod
along AB. Then surveyor instructs the assistant to
mark that point and stretch the chain along AC.

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Direct Ranging

Line Ranger
It is an optical instrument used
for locating a point on a line and
hence useful for ranging. It
consists of two isosceles prisms
placed one over the other and
fixed in an instrument with
handle. The diagonals of the
prisms are silvered so as to
reflect the rays.

Ranging by Line Ranger

Line Ranger
Its advantage is it needs only one
person to range. The instrument
should be occasionally tested by
marking three points in a line and
standing on middle point observing
the coincidence of the ranging rods.
If the images of the two ranging rods
do not appear in the same line, one
of the prism is adjusted by operating
the screw provided for it.

Line Ranger

Line Ranger
To locate point C on line AB (ref. Fig.) the
surveyor holds the instrument in hand and
stands near the approximate position of C.
If he is not exactly on line AB, the ranging
rods at A and B appear separated as
shown in Fig. (b). The surveyor moves to
and fro at right angles to the line AB till
the images of ranging rods at A and B
appear in a single line as shown in Fig. (c).
It happens only when the optical square is
exactly on line AB. Thus the desired point
C is located on the line AB.

Line Ranger

Line Ranger

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling
Due to intervening ground, if the ranging rod at B is
not visible from station A, reciprocal ranging may be
resorted. Figure shows this scheme of ranging.
It needs two assistants one at point M and another at
point N, where from those points both station A and
station B are visible. It needs one surveyor at A and
another at B. To start with M and N are approximately
selected, say M1 and N1. Then surveyor near end A
ranges person near M to position M2 such that
AM2N1 are in a line. Then surveyor at B directs
person at N, to move to N2 such that BN2M2 are in a
line. The process is repeated till AMNB are in a line.

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Indirect or Reciprocal
Levelling

Chain Surveying
Chain surveying is the type of surveying in which
only linear measurements are taken in the field.
This type of surveying is done for surveying of
small extent to describe the boundaries of plots
of land and to locate the existing feature on
them.
It is the method of surveying in which the area is
divided into network of triangles and the sides of
the various triangles are measured directly in
the field with a chain or a tape and no angular
measurements are taken.

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Principles of Chain
Surveying
The principle of chain surveying is to divide the
area into a number of triangles of suitable sides.
As a triangle is the only simple plane geometrical
figure which can be plotted from the length of the
three sides even if the angles are not known. A
network of triangles is preferred to chain
surveying.
Triangulation is the principle of chain surveying. If
the area to be surveyed is triangle in shape and if
the lengths and sequence of its three sides are
recorded, the plan of the area can be easily drawn.

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Principles of Chain
Surveying

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Survey Stations
Survey stations are the points at the
beginning and at the end of a chain
line they may also occur at any
convenient position on the chain line.
Such station may be
Main Stations
Subsidiary Stations
Tie Stations

Terms related to Chain Surveying

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Main Station Stations along the
boundary of an area as controlling
points are known as Main Stations
The lines joining the main station are
called Main Survey Lines. The main
survey lines should cover the whole
area to be surveyed. The main
stations are denoted by .

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Subsidiary
Stations:
Stations
which are on the main survey lines or
any other survey lines are known as
Subsidiary Stations these stations
are taken to run subsidiary lines for
dividing the area into triangles, for
checking the accuracy of triangles
and for locating interior details.

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Tie Stations:
These stations are also subsidiary
stations taken on the main survey
lines. Lines joining the stations are
known as Tie lines Tie lines are
taken to locate interior details.

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Main Survey Lines:
The line joining the main stations are
called main survey lines or chain
lines.

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Base Line: The line on which the framework of the
survey is built is known as Base line. It is the most
important line of the survey. Generally the longest of
the main survey lines is considered as the base line.
This lines should be taken through fairly level ground,
and should be measured very carefully and accurately.

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Check Line
The line joining the apex point of a
triangle to some fixed points on its
base is known as Check line. It is
taken to check the accuracy of the
triangle. Sometimes this line helps to
locate interior details.

Terms related to Chain

Surveying
Tie Line
A line joining tie stations is termed as
a tie line. It is run to take the interior
details which are far away from the
main lines and also to avoids long
offsets. It can also serve as check
line.

Selection of Survey
Station

The following points should be considered

while selecting survey stations:
It should be visible from at least two or
more stations.
As far as possible main lines should run
on level ground.
All triangles should be well conditioned
(No angle less than 30).
Main network should have as few lines as
possible.

Selection of Survey Station

Each main triangle should have at

least one check line.
Obstacles to ranging and chaining
should be avoided.
Sides of the larger triangles should
pass as close to boundary lines as
possible.
Trespassing and frequent crossing of
the roads should be avoided

Operation in Chain Surveying

The following operations are involved
in chain surveying.
Chaining
Ranging
Offsetting
These three operations are done
simultaneously during chain
Surveying.

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Chaining
Chaining on Level Ground
The method of taking measurement with the
help of chain or tape is termed as chaining.
Chaining involves following operations
Fixing the stations
Unfolding the chain
Ranging
Measuring the distance (Survey Line)
Folding the Chain

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Fixing of Station
Stations are first of all marked with pegs
and ranging rods to make them visible.
Unfolding of a Chain
To open a chain, the strap is unfastened and
the two brass handles are held in the left
hand and the bunch is thrown forward with
the right hand. Then one chainmen moves
forward by holding the other handle until
the chain is completely extended.

Fixing of Station

Unfolding of a Chain

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Ranging
process
of
establishing
The
intermediate points on a straight line
between two end points is known as
ranging. Ranging must be done
before a survey line is chained

Ranging ( Code of
Signals)
Sr.
No.

Signal by the Surveyor

Rapid
hand

Slow Sweep with right hand Move slowly towards left

Right arm extended

Right arm up and move to Plumb the rod towards left

the right

Rapid Sweep with left hand

Move considerable towards

right

Slow Sweep with left hand

Move slowly towards right

Left arm extended

Continuously move towards

right

Left arm up and move to Plumb the rod towards right

the right

Sweep

with

Meaning of the signal to

the assistant

right Move considerable towards

left
Continuously move towards
left

Ranging

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Measuring the distance (Survey Line)
Two persons are required in this operation,
i.e. Leader and Follower.
The chainman at the forward end of the
chain who drags the chain forward, is
known as the leader
The chainmen at the rear end of the
chain, who holds the zero end of the chain
at the station, is known as the follower.

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying
To chain the line, the leader moves forward by dragging
the chain line and taking with him ranging rod and ten
arrows. The follower stands at the starting station by
holding the other end of the chain. When the chain is
fully extended, the leader holds the ranging rod
vertically at arms length.
directs the
the leader
leader to
to move
move his
his rod
rod to
to the
the
The follower directs
left or right until the ranging rod is exactly in the line.
Then the follower holds the zero end of the chain by
touching the station peg.
The leader stretches the chain by moving it up and
down with both hands, and finally place it on the line.
He then inserts an arrow on the ground at the end
end of
of the
the
chain and mark it with cross.

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Again the leader moves forward by dragging the chain
with nine arrows and the ranging rod. At the end of the
chain, he fixes another arrow as before, As the leader
moves further, the follower picks the arrow which were
inserted by the leader. During chaining the surveyor or
an assistant should conduct the ranging operation.
In this way, chaining is continued, when all the arrows
are inserted the leader has non left with him, the
follower hands over to the leader.
To measure the fractional length, the leader should
drag the chain beyond the station and the follower
should hold the zero end of the chain at last arrow,
then odd links should be counted.

Operation in Chain Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Folding of Chain
To fold the chain, a chainmen should move
forward by pulling the chain at the middle.
Then the two halves of the chain will come
side by side. After this, commencing from the
central position of the chain, two pairs of links
are taken at a time with the right hand and
placed on the left hand alternately in both
directions. Finally the two brass handles will
appear at top. The bunch should be then
fastened by the strap.

Folding of Chain

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Chaining on Sloping Ground
The object of survey is to prepare a plan or a
map. In the plan or a map the distance plotted
between any two points is always a straight line.
Even if the chaining is done on a sloping ground,
this sloping distance is converted into horizontal
equivalent distance while plotting.
There are two methods of finding out horizontal
distance while on a sloping ground.
Direct Method
Indirect Method

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Direct Method

This method is also called method of stepping in this

method, the distance is measured in small horizontal
stretches. A suitable length of chain or tape say l11 is
taken. The follower holds the zero end of the tape at a
point on the top of the hill or sloping ground. i.e. at point
A. The tape is stretched horizontally from A at small
length l11 of 3 to 5 m. The point at the end of the l11 is
dropped and marked on the ground as a11. From a1,
again tape is stretched exactly in a horizontal plane at a
convenient step l22 and drop end of l22 on the ground as
b11. Likewise entire length of line on the sloping ground is
measured.
Finally the total horizontal length of the line AB, i.e. D is

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Indirect Method
Indirect method involves calculation from the
directly measured length these methods are
briefly explained here.
Method-1
Horizontal distance of the segment is calculated
by knowing sloping length of the segment and
angle of inclination of that with horizontal.
The angle of the sloping surface with horizontal
can be known by a simple handy instrument
called as abneys level

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Total Distance D= d = d11 +d22 +
.dnn, and
d= l Cos for d11 = l11 Cos 11
Where,
= angle of sloping surface with
horizontal and
l= sloping length.

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Clinometer

Clinometer

Abneys level

Abneys level

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Method 2
If elevation difference between two terminal
point and the sloping distance between the
two terminal point is known, the horizontal
distance H can be calculated as,
l22 D22
H=
Where,
l= sloping length
D= Elevation difference between two points

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Method 3
This method is also known as hypotenusal
allowance method. The chaining is done on the
sloping ground, but instead of putting the end arrow
at the actual end of the chain, it is put at some
advanced distance and that point is considered as
the end of one chain length.
In this method, the chain of 20 m length ends at
point B. Therefore, sloping length l = 20 m, but the
actual horizontal length (H) is less than 20 m and
calculation is required
to calculate horizontal
distance based on . Angle of inclination of ground.

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Horizontal distance H= (l + a) Cos ,

Where,
H is intended to make one chain length,
Therefore ,
H= (l + a) Cos
Here, AB= one chain length= l= H= 20 m
Therefore Put H= l= 20 m
20= (20 +a) Cos
20 Sec = 20 + a
a= 20 Sec 20
a= 20 (Sec 1)

Operation in Chain
Surveying
Where a hypotenusal allowance for
20 m chain
For a chain other than 20 m length,
a= l (Sec 1) where l= length of
chain in m
Thus the arrow is inserted at (l+a)
distance on the ground instead of at
the end of chain. Thus the horizontal
distance of this sloping distance on
ground is equal to one chain length.

Operation in Chain
Surveying

Offsets
Lateral measurements to chain lines
for locating ground features are
known as offsets. For this purpose
perpendicular or oblique offsets may
be taken . If the object to be located
(say road) is curved more number of
offsets
should
be
taken.
For
measuring
offsets
tapes
are
commonly used.

Offsets
Perpendicular Offsets
offsets
which
are
taken
The
perpendicular to the chain line are
termed as perpendicular offsets.
These offsets are taken by holding
zero end of the tape at the object
and swinging the tape on the chain
line. The shortest distance measured
from object to the chain line is
usually the perpendicular offset.

Perpendicular Offsets

Offsets
Oblique Offset
Oblique distance is always greater
than perpendicular distance. All the
offsets which are not taken at the
right angle to chain line are known as
oblique offsets.

Oblique Offset

Offsets

Offsets
For setting perpendicular offsets any
one of the following methods are
used:
(i) Swinging
(ii) Using cross staffs
(iii) Using optical or prism square.

Perpendicular Offset by
Swinging
Chain is stretched along the survey
line. An assistant holds the end of
tape on the object. Surveyor swings
the tape on chain line and selects the
point on chain where offset distance
is the least.
and notes chain reading as well as
offset reading in a field book on a
neat sketch of the object

Perpendicular Offset by
Swinging

Perpendicular Offset by
Swinging

Perpendicular Offset by
Swinging

Perpendicular Offset by
Swinging

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Cross Staffs
Three different types of cross staffs used for setting
perpendicular offsets. All cross staffs are having two
perpendicular lines of sights. The cross staffs are
mounted on stand. First line of sight is set along the
chain line and without disturbing setting right angle
line of sight is checked to locate the object.
With open cross staff (Fig(a)) it is possible to set
perpendicular only, while with French cross staff
(Fig(b)), even 45 angle can be set. Adjustable
cross staff can be used to set any angle also, since
there are graduations and upper drum can be
rotated over lower drum.

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Cross Staffs

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Cross Staffs

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism
Square

These instruments are based on the

optical principle that if two mirrors
are at angle to each other,
they reflect a ray at angle 2.
Figure
shows a typical optical
square.

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Optical Square and Prism

Square

Optical Square and Prism

Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

Perpendicular Offsets Using

Optical Square and Prism Square

3-4-5 Method
AB is the chain line it is required to erect a
perpendicular at C of the chain line. Establish a
pt D at 3 m distance. 5m & 6m marks are
brought to gather to form a loop .The tape is
stretched tight by fastening the end D and C.
The point D is established such that DE = 5 m
and CE= 4 m and CD = 3 m and DE 22 = CD22 +
DE22
i.e. 5 22 = 3 22 + 4 22 = 25 thus Angle DCE = 90
00

i.e. CE is perpendicular to chain line at C

3-4-5 Method

3-4-5 method

3-4-5 method

Field Book
All observations
observations and
and measurements
measurements taken
taken during
during chain
All
surveying are
are to
to be
be recorded
recorded in
in a
a standard
standard field
field book.
book. It
It is
is
surveying
a oblong
oblong book,
book, which
which can
can be
be carried
carried in
in the
the pocket.
pocket.
a
There are
are two
two forms
forms of
of the
the book
book
There
(i) single
single line
line and
and
(i)
(ii) double
double line.
line.
(ii)
The pages
pages of
of a
a single
single book
book are
are having
having a red
red line
line along
along the
the
The
length of
of the
the paper
paper in
in the
the middle
middle of
of the
the width.
width. It
It indicates
indicates
length
the chain
chain line.
line.
the
All chainages
chainages are
are written
written across
across it.
it. The
The space
space on
on either
either
All
side of the line is used for sketching the object and for
side
noting offset
offset distances.
distances. In
In double
double line
line book
book there
there are
are two
two
noting
blue lines
lines with
with a
a space
space of
of 15
15 to
to 20
20 mm
mm
blue
is the
the middle
middle of
of each
each book.
book. The
The space
space between
between the
the two
two
is
lines is
is utilised
utilised for
for noting
noting the
the chainages.
chainages.
lines

Field Book

Field Book

References
Surveying and Levelling Vol I
Kanetkar and
and Kulkarni
Kulkarni (2011)
(2011) Pune
Pune Vidhyarthi
Vidhyarthi Griha,
Griha,
Kanetkar
Pune
Pune

Surveying and Levelling

N.N.Basak (2010)
(2010) Tata
Tata Mcgraw
Mcgraw Hill
Hill
N.N.Basak

Surveying Vol- I
Dr. B.C.
B.C. Punamia
Punamia Laxmi
Laxmi Publication
Publication
Dr.

Internet Websites
http://www.fao.org/docrep/r7021e/r7021e02.htm
#TopOfPage

Thanks !