Module 1

AC Circuits: Basic
Principles

Engr. Gerard Ang

School of EECE

Types of Electrical Current

Direct Current (DC). It is
electric current which flows in
one direction only.
Alternating Current (AC). It
is
electric
current
that
reverses direction periodically
usually many times per
second.

Generation of Alternating
Current and Voltages

Alternating voltage may be generated by:

Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary
coil

Altering the direction of the magnetic field

Generation of Alternating Current and

Voltages

Faradays Laws of
Electromagnetic

First Law. An emf is

Induction
induced
in
a
coil
whenever the flux linking
the coil changes with
time.

Second
Law.
The
magnitude of the induced
emf in an N-turn coil is
equal to the time rate of
change of the magnetic
flux through it

d
e=N
dt
Where:
e = induced emf in volts
N = number of turns of the
coil
d/dt =
rate of change of
magnetic flux in Webers per
sec

Induced EMF
It is emf resulting from the motion of a conductor
through a magnetic field, or from a change in the
magnetic field that threads a conductor.

e = Bl v
Where:
e
= dynamically induced
emf in
volts
B=
flux density of uniform
magnetic field in Tesla
l
= length of the inductor in
m
v=
velocity of the conductor
in
m/sec

Flemings Left Hand Rule

Flemings left hand rule is used to determine the
direction of the force acting on a conductor. With your
left hand, stretch out the thumb, forefinger and middle
finger so that these are at right angles with each other.

Thumb
= direction of force
Forefinger
= direction of
field.
Middle finger = direction of
current

Importance of AC
It can be generated at comparatively high
voltage and can be raised or lowered by
means of a transformer.
Transmission of power over long distances is
much more economical with alternating than
direct current.
It can be built in large unit of high speed,
unlike in dc due to commutation problems.
Induction motor (ac motor) are more efficient
than dc motor at constant speed work and
less in first cost because ac motor does not
have commutator.

AC Waveform Terminologies
1. Waveform it is the shape of the
curve obtained by plotting the
instantaneous values of voltages or
currents as the ordinate against
time as the abscissa.
2. Cycle it is a complete set of
positive
and
negative
value
alternation of sinusoidal wave.
3. Alternation It is one half cycle
of a
complete set of positive and
negative values.

Sinusoidal Wave

1 Revolution
= 360 Electrical
deg.
= 180P Mechanical deg.
Where: P = number of poles (even)

AC Waveform Terminologies
4.

Period of the wave (T) It is the time taken in seconds by an

alternating quantity to complete one cycle.

5.

Frequency of the wave (f) It is the number of cycles produced

per second or Hertz (Hz) by an alternating quantity.

6.

Where: n = shaft speed rotation in rev per min (rpm)

f
= frequency in Hertz
Wavelength () it is the length of one complete wave or cycle or
the distance traveled by the wave form in one cycle.

AC Waveform Terminologies
7. Instantaneous value of a sinusoidal wave it is the magnitude of the
wave at any instant.
8. Maximum or Peak value of a sinusoidal wave it is the maximum
value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating voltage or
current.
9. Peak-to-peak value of a sinusoidal wave it is the value from the
positive peak or negative peak or vice versa. It is always twice the peak
value.
10. Phase or Phase Angle () it is the
fractional part of a period or cycle though
which the quantity has advanced or delayed from
selected origin.
Note:
If the waveform starts before the y-axis, it will
have a positive phase angle.
If the waveform starts after the y-axis, it will
have a negative phase angle.

AC Waveform Terminologies
11. Phase Difference it is the difference between the phases of two or more
alternating quantity of the same frequency which do not reached their
maximum or zero value simultaneously.

Where:
pd = phase difference
leading
= phase of leading quantity
lagging
= phase of lagging quantity
Note: If
pd = (+) denotes leading phase difference
= (-) denotes lagging phase difference

Sample Problems
Find the phase difference of the following waveforms:
a. i = 10sin(377t + 25)
v = 200cos(377t 20)
b. i1 = 5cos(377t 20)
i2 = 10cos(377t 30)
c. i1 = -10sin(314t 30)
i2 = 40cos(314t 10)
d. v1 = 20cos377t
v2 = 50sin(314t + 20)

AC Waveform Terminologies
12. Average value or mean value of a sinusoidal wave it is defined as
that steady quantity which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is
transferred by that alternating quantity during the same time. It is
also the
arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one
cycle.

13. Root-mean-square (RMS) value or effective

value of a sinusoidal
wave It is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a given
resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced
by the alternating current when flowing through the same resistance for the
same time.

AC Waveform Terminologies
14. Form Factor It is the ratio of the RMS value or
value to the average value of an alternating quantity.

effective

15. Peak factor or Crest factor or Amplitude Factor It is

the
ratio of the maximum value to the RMS value or effective
value of
an alternating quantity.

Average and RMS Value and Form and Peak

Factor for Various Waveforms
Form
Factor

Peak
Factor

Sine Wave

1.11

1.41

Half-Wave
Rectified
Sine Wave

1.57

2.0

Full-Wave
Rectified
Sine Wave

1.11

1.41

Type of
Waveform

Wave Shape

RMS
Value

Average
Value

Average and RMS Value and Form and Peak

Factor for Various Waveforms
Type of
Waveform

Rectangul
ar Wave

Triangular
Wave

Wave Shape

RMS
Value

Average
Value

Form
Factor

Peak
Factor

Vm

Vm

1.0

1.0

1.16

1.73

Sample Problems
1. Compute for the average and effective values of the
square voltage wave shown below.

2. Calculate the RMS value of the function shown below if

it is given that for 0 < t < 0.1, v = 10(1 e-100t) and for
0.1 < t < 0.2, v = 10e-50(t 0.1).

Sample Problems
3. Find the average and
effective values of the sawtooth waveform shown.
4. The waveform of an output
current is as shown in the
figure. It consists of a portion of
the positive half
cycle of a
sine wave between the angle
and 180. Determine the
effective value for = 30.

v
10 V
v
0

Sample Problems
5. Calculate the r.m.s. and average value of the
voltage wave shown in the figure below.

Equations of Alternating
Current and Voltage
Any sinusoidal quantity can be expressed as

ii

Where:
e(t) = instantaneous value of voltage
i(t) = instantaneous value of current
Em = maximum value of voltage
Im = maximum value of current
t
= time in seconds

= angle of rotation or phase angle in

degrees
N
= number of turns of the coil
Bm = maximum flux density
A
= area of the coil

= angular velocity in rad per sec

= 2f

Sample Problems
1. The maximum values of the alternating voltage and
current are 400 V and 20 A respectively in a circuit
connected to a 50 Hz supply and these quantities are
sinusoidal. The instantaneous values of the voltage and
current are 283 V and 10 A respectively at t = 0 both
increasing positively. Write down the expression for current
and voltage at time t.
2. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum
value of 120 A. Write down the equation for the
instantaneous value. Reckoning time from the instant the
current is zero and is becoming positive, find (a) the
instantaneous value after 1/360 second and (b) the time
taken to reach 96 A for the first time.

Sample Problems
3. An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz has a positive
maximum value of 100 A. Calculate (a) its value after
1/600
second after the instant the current is zero and its
value
decreasing there afterwards (b) How many seconds after the
instant the current is zero (increasing thereafter wards) will
the current attain the value of 86.6 A?
4. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency
of 50 Hz has an RMS value of 20 A. Write down the
equation for the instantaneous value and find this value (a)
0.0025 second (b) 0.0125 second after passing through a
positive maximum value. At what time, measured from a
positive maximum value, will the instantaneous current be
14.14 A?

Harmonics
Harmonics or Non-Sinusoidal
or Distorted or Complex
waveform
these
are
alternating waveforms which
deviate to a greater or lesser
degree. Complex waveforms
are
produced
due
to
superposition
of
sinusoidal
waves are different frequencies.
Such waves occur in speech,
music, TV, rectifier outputs and
many
applications
of
electronics.

Harmonics
Types of Harmonics
a. Even Harmonics - these are waves having frequencies of
2f, 4f, 6f, etc. or 2w, 4w, 6w.
b. Odd Harmonics - these are waves having frequencies of
3f, 5f, 7f, etc. or 3w. 5w, 7w.
General Equation of a Complex Wave
The general equation of a complex wave is given as:

Where: E1m sin (t + 1) = fundamental

E2m sin (t + 2) = second harmonic
Enm sin (t + n) = nth harmonic

Harmonics
RMS Value of a Complex Wave

Where: Edc = dc component of the harmonic

Similarly,

Harmonics
Power Supplied by a Complex Wave
The total average power supplied by a complex wave is the sum
of the average power supplied by each harmonic component acting
independently.

Sample Problems
A complex voltage is given by e = 60 sin t + 24 sin (3t +
/6) + 12 sin (5t + /3) is applied across a certain circuit
the resulting current is given by i = 0.6 sin (t - 2/10) + 0.12
sin (3t - 2/24) + 0.1 sin (5t - 3/4).
Find:
(a) rms value of current and voltage
(b) total power supplied