Thermal Development of Internal Flows

P M V Subbarao
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
IIT Delhi

Concept for Precise Design

Development of Flow

Temperature Profile in Internal Flow

Hot Wall & Cold Fluid
Ti

Ts(x)
T(x)

Cold Wall & Hot Fluid

Ti

Ts(x)
T(x)

The local heat transfer rate is:

q x hx A Twall Tm x

We also often define a Nusselt number as:

qx
D
hx D A Twall Tm x
Nu D ( x)

k fluid
k fluid

Mean Velocity and Bulk Temperature

Two important parameters in internal forced convection are the
mean flow velocity u and the bulk or mixed mean fluid
temperature Tm(z).
The mass flow rate is defined as:

while the bulk or mixed mean temperature is defined as:

Tm ( x)

uC pTdAc
Ac

m C p

For Incompressible Flows:

1
Tm ( x)
u Ac

uTdA

Ac

Mean Temperature (Tm)

We characterise the fluid temperature by using the mean
temperature of the fluid at a given cross-section.
Heat addition to the fluid leads to increase in mean
temperature and vice versa.
For the existence of convection heat transfer, the mean
temperature of the fluid should monotonically vary.

First Law for A CV : SSSF

qz
Tm,in

qCV m in h V 2 gz

Tm,exit
dx
in

m exit h V 2 gz

exit

W CV

No work transfer, change in kinetic and potential energies are negligible

qCV

~
~
m in hin m exit hexit

~
~
q z m hexit hin

q z m C p ,mean Tm ,exit Tm ,in

THERMALLY FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

There should be heat transfer from wall to fluid or vice
versa.
Then What does fully developed flow signify in Thermal
view?

q z m C p ,mean Tm ,exit Tm ,in 0

q z hx A Twall Tm x 0

FULLY DEVELOPED CONDITIONS

(THERMALLY)

(what does this signify?)

Use a dimensionless temperature difference to characterise the
profile, i.e. use

Ts ( x ) T ( r , x )
Ts ( x ) Tm ( x )
This ratio is independent of x in the fully developed region, i.e.

Ts ( x) T (r , x)
x T ( x) T ( x)
m
s

0
fd ,t

Ts ( x) T (r , x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) T (r , x)
0
x
x

Ts ( x) T (r , x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) T (r , x)
0
x
x
Ts ( x) T (r , x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

T
(
x
)

T
(
r
,
x
)

0
s
x
x
x
x

Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

Ts ( x)
T (r , x)
Tm ( x)
T r , x Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) T (r , x) 0
x
x
x

Uniform Wall Heat flux : Fully Developed Region

q ' ' constant hx Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

x
x
Ts ( x)
T r , x Tm ( x) T (r , x) Ts ( x) Tm ( x) Tm ( x) Ts ( x) T (r , x) 0
x
x
x
T (r , x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x) Tm ( x) Ts ( x) Tm (r , x) 0
x
x

T r , x
T (r , x) Tm ( x)

Ts ( x) Tm ( x) 0
x
x
x

Temp. profile shape is unchanging.

fd ,t

dTm

dx

fd ,t

Constant Surface Heat Flux : Heating of Fluid

d Ts Tm
h P

dx
Ts Tm
m c p
Integrating from x=0 (Tm = T m,i) to x = L (Tm = Tm,o):
Tm ,o

Tm ,i

d Ts Tm
h P

dx

Ts Tm
m c p 0
L

Temperature Profile in Fully Developed Region

Uniform Wall Temperature (UWT)

dTs
0
dx

(x )

(Ts T ) dTm
T

fd ,t
fd ,t
x
(Ts Tm ) dx
axial temp. gradient is not independent of r and shape of temperature
profile is changing.

The shape of the temperature profile is changing, but the

relative shape is unchanged (for UWT conditions).
Both the shape and the relative shape are independent of x for
UWF conditions.
At the tube surface:

r r0
Ts T

r
f ( x)
r r0
Ts Tm
Ts Tm

but

q"s

T
T
k
y 0 k
r r0
y
r

q"s

f ( x)
k[Ts Tm ]

h f (x)
k

i.e. the Nusselt number is independent of x in the thermally fully

developed region.
Assuming const. fluid properties:-

h f ( x) x x fd ,t
This is the real significance of thermally fully developed

Evolution of Macro Flow Parameters

Thermal Considerations Internal Flow

T fluid Tsurface

a thermal boundary layer develops

The growth of th depends on whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent
Extent of Thermal Entrance Region:
Laminar Flow:

Turbulent Flow:

x fd ,t

x fd ,t

0.05 Re Pr

10

Energy Balance : Heating or Cooling of fluid

Rate of energy inflow

m c pTm
Tm

Rate of energy outflow

m c p Tm dTm

Tm + dTm
dx

Rate of heatflow through wall:

Q h dA Ts Tm
Conservation of energy:

Q h dA Ts Tm m c p Tm dTm m c pTm

h P dx Ts Tm m c p dTm
dTm h P
Ts Tm

dx
m c p
This expression is an extremely useful result, from which axial
Variation of Tm may be determined.
The solution to above equation depends on the surface thermal
condition.
Two special cases of interest are:
1. Constant surface heat flux.
2. Constant surface temperature

Constant Surface Heat flux heating or cooling

For constant surface heat flux:
For entire pipe:

Q qs'' P L m c p Tm ,o Tm ,i

For small control volume:

h P dx q m c p dTm
''
s

dTm q P

f ( x)
dx
m c p
''
s

Integrating form x = 0

Tm ( x ) Tm ,i

qs'' P

m cp

The mean temperature varies linearly with x along the tube.

For a small control volume:

h P dx Ts Tm m c p dTm
m c p dTm

Ts Tm

h P dx
The mean temperature variation depends on variation of h.

Constant Surface Heat Flux : Heating of Fluid

d Ts Tm
h P

dx
Ts Tm
m c p
Integrating from x=0 (Tm = T m,i) to x = L (Tm = Tm,o):
Tm ,o

Tm ,i

d Ts Tm
h P

dx

Ts Tm
m c p 0
L

Constant Surface Heat flux heating or cooling

For a small control volume:

h P dx Ts Tm m c p dTm
dTm
h P

dx
Ts Tm m c p
d Ts Tm
h P

dx
Ts Tm
m c p
Integrating from x=0 (Tm = T m,i) to x = L (Tm = Tm,o):
Tm ,o

Tm ,i

d Ts Tm
h P

dx

Ts Tm
m c p 0
L

 Ts Tm ,o

h P L

Ts Tm,i
m c p

ln

Ts Tm ,o

ln

h Asurface

Ts Tm ,i
m c p

m c p
Asurface

ln

Ts Tm ,o

Ts Tm ,i

h : Average Convective heat transfer coefficient.

Ts Tm ,o
Ts Tm ,i

exp

havg Asurface

m c p

The above result illustrates the exponential behavior

of the bulk fluid for constant wall temperature.
It may also be written as:

havg P x
Ts Tm x
exp

Ts Tm ,i
m c p

to get the local variation in bulk temperature.

It important to relate the wall temperature, the inlet
and exit temperatures, and the heat transfer in one
single expression.

Constant Surface Heat flux heating or cooling

if Ts Ti

if Ts Ti

Ts

Tm

Tm
Ts
x

To get this we write:

Q m c p Tm,o Tm ,i m c p Ts Tm,o Ts Tm,i m c p To Ti

which is the Log Mean Temperature Difference.

The above expression requires knowledge of the exit
temperature, which is only known if the heat transfer
rate is known.
An alternate equation can be derived which
eliminates
We
Know the outlet temperature.

Thermal Resistance:

Dimensionless Parameters for Convection

Forced Convection Flow Inside a Circular Tube

All properties at fluid bulk mean

temperature (arithmetic mean of
inlet and outlet temperature).

Internal Flow Heat Transfer

Convection correlations
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow

Other topics
Non-circular flow channels
Concentric tube annulus

Convection correlations: laminar flow in circular tubes

1. The fully developed region
from the energy equation,we can obtain the exact solution.
for constant surface heat fluid

hD
Nu D
4.36
k

qs C

for constant surface temperature

hD
Nu D
3.66
k
Note: the thermal conductivity k should be evaluated at average Tm

Convection correlations: laminar flow in circular tubes

The entry region : for the constant surface temperature
condition
D
0.0668 Re D Pr
L
Nu D 3.66
2/3
D

1 0.04 Re D Pr
L

thermal entry length

Convection correlations: laminar flow in circular tubes

for the combined entry length

Nu D
Valid for

Re

Re D Pr
1.86

L/D
D

1/ 3

Pr/( L / D )

1/ 3

Ts C

0.14

/ s 0.14

0.48 Pr 16,700

0.0044 / s 9.75
All fluid properties evaluated
at the mean T

Tm Tm ,i Tm , o / 2

Thermally developing, hydrodynamically

developed laminar flow (Re < 2300)
Constant wall temperature:

Constant wall heat flux:

Simultaneously developing laminar flow (Re < 2300)

Constant wall temperature:

Constant wall heat flux:

which is valid over the range 0.7 < Pr < 7 or

if Re Pr D/L < 33 also for Pr > 7.

Convection correlations: turbulent flow in circular tubes

A lot of empirical correlations are available.
For smooth tubes and fully developed flow.

Nu D 0.023 Re 4D/ 5 Pr 0.4

Nu D 0.023 Re 4D/ 5 Pr 0.3

For heating
for cooling

For rough tubes, coefficient increases with wall roughness. For fully developed flows

( f / 8)(Re D 1000) Pr
Nu d
1 12.7( f / 8)1/ 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)

Fully developed turbulent and transition flow

(Re > 2300)
Constant wall Temperature:

Where

Constant wall temperature:

For fluids with Pr > 0.7 correlation for constant wall heat flux can
be used with negligible error.

Effects of property variation with temperature

Liquids, laminar and turbulent flow:

Subscript w: at wall temperature, without subscript: at mean fluid

temperature
Gases, laminar flow

Gases, turbulent flow

Nu = Nu0

Noncircular Tubes: Correlations

For noncircular cross-sections, define an effective
diameter, known as the hydraulic diameter:

Use the correlations for circular crosssections.

Selecting the right correlation

Calculate Re and check the flow regime (laminar or turbulent)
Calculate hydrodynamic entrance length (x fd,h or Lhe) to see
whether the flow is hydrodynamically fully developed. (fully
developed flow vs. developing)
Calculate thermal entrance length (x fd,t or Lte) to determine
whether the flow is thermally fully developed.
We need to find average heat transfer coefficient to use in U
calculation in place of hi or ho.
Average Nusselt number can be obtained from an appropriate
correlation.
Nu = f(Re, Pr)
We need to determine some properties and plug them into the
correlation.
These properties are generally either evaluated at mean (bulk)
fluid temperature or at wall temperature. Each correlation should
also specify this.

Heat transfer enhancement

Enhancement
Increase the convection coefficient
Introduce surface roughness to enhance turbulence.
Induce swirl.
Increase the convection surface area
Longitudinal fins, spiral fins or ribs.

Heat transfer enhancement

Helically coiled tube
Without inducing turbulence or additional heat transfer
surface area.
Secondary flow